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A MANUAL 



OF 



BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 



By W. P. STRICKLAND, D. D. 






x 



1 



PUBLISHED BY CARLTON & PHILLIPS, 



00^ MULBERRY-STREET. 






&%* 



A \ 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1853, 

BY CARLTON & PHILLIPS, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District 

of New-York. 



PREFACE 



To say that the work, which is here presented, 
is a compilation, would be superfluous; as that 
will be perfectly obvious to every Biblical student, 
who may consult its pages. All that the author 
p claims as original, with few exceptions, is the 
selection and arrangement of what he conceives to 
be the proper subjects belonging to the study of 
Biblical Literature. 

In a more extensive sense, instructions in regard 
to the study of Church History and government, 
dogmatic, homiletic, and pastoral theology, might 
be included; but the introduction of these subjects 
would not, in the opinion of the compiler, be such 
a classification as specifically belongs to the de- 
partment of Biblical Literature. 

Under the head of Theological Literature, every 
subject may be embraced, which, in any way, 
pertains to religion — historical, theoretical, expert 



4 PREFACE. 

mental, and practical; but such subjects do not, 
appropriately, belong to the present work. The 
Manual is simply designed as a guide, or hand- 
book, whose province it is to direct attention to 
the vast fields of Sacred Literature, and furnish 
directions, by the aid of which, the treasures 
therein contained may be discovered and garnered 
up. 

The following works have been used, to a greater 
or less extent, in the compilation; and to them 
the author acknowledges himself chiefly indebted, 
viz. : — Ernesti, Jahn, Francke, Michaelis, Winer, 
Gerard, Gesenius, Marsh, Home, Kitto, Calmet, 
Stuart, Lardner, Bloomfield, Robinson, Carpenter, 
and Gaussen. The works of modern Oriental trav- 
ellers, such as Layard, Lynch, Olin, Durbin, Rob- 
inson and others, have been consulted. 

In the preparation of the following work, the 
single aim of the author has been, to furnish an 
elementary treatise on those topics of Biblical 
Literature, a knowledge of which would enable 
the student to investigate the Sacred Oracles, in a 
thorough and systematic manner. 

It will be seen that the work embraces a wide 
range of topics. The author has availed himself 



PREFACE. 



of the labours of those Biblical scholars, whose 
works possess the greatest merit, in the different 
departments of Sacred Literature embraced in this 
volume ; and his compilation is made from their 
writings. In the arrangement of the topics, the 
order hinted at by Bishop Marsh, in his course 
of lectures on theology, and also by Gesenius, in 
his History of Introductions, has been, in a great 
measure, adopted. 

Nothing has been omitted which the author con- 
ceived to belong to a Manual of Biblical Literature. 
By this he means that nothing essential has been left 
out so far as the outlines and general principles are 
concerned. In some respects he might have entered 
more fully into the minutiae of the subjects treated: 
for example, in the part which treats of Archaeology, 
which, according to the definition of some, embraces 
almost if not quite everything pertaining to the 
Bible, he has only made those selections which he 
considered most important. 

The same remark will apply in a more limited 
sense to Biblical Analysis, History, and Geography. 
This would be impossible in a Manual, as each sub- 
ject of itself would fill a volume. 

A part might have been added entitled Biblical 
Biography, and such was in accordance with the 



6 PREFACE. 

author's original design ; but it would have swelled 
the work beyond the prescribed limits, and hence it 
was abandoned. Such a work by itself is a desider- 
atum, inasmuch as that completeness which is desir- 
able in , this department is not to be found in the 
Biblical Cyclopaedias and Dictionaries which have 
been published. 

To all who are interested in the systematic study 
of the Bible, it is hoped this volume may prove 
some help. 

W. P. STRICKLAND. 
Cincinnati, May 1, 1853. 



CONTENTS. 



Introduction, by Dr. Elliott Page 9 

Preliminary Chapter. — Importance of Biblical Studies 13 

PART FIRST. 

BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY 23 

Chapter I. — Languages of the Bible 23 

Chapter II. — The Hebrew Language 25 

Chapter III. — The Aramean or Syrian Language 25 

Chapter IV. — The Greek Language 31 

Chapter V. — Hints in regard to the Study of the Languages of the 

Bible 33 

PART SECOND. 

BIBLICAL CRITICISM _ 39 

Chapter I. — Objects of Biblical Criticism 39 

Chapter II. — The Nature of a Various Reading 41 

Chapter HI. — Sources of False Readings 42 

Chapter IV. — Kinds of False Readings 47 

Chapter V. — Rules of Judging concerning Various Readings 49 

PART THIRD. 

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS 55 

Chapter I. — Interpretation in General 55 

Chapter II.— The Meaning of Words...., 5Q 

Chapter III. — Kinds of Words, and their Various Uses 62 

Chapter IV. — Rules of Interpretation 66 

Chapter V. — Usus Loquendi of the New Testament 77 

Chapter VI. — Tropical Language 81 

Chapter VH. — Rules in regard to Emphasis 86 

Chapter VHI. — The Affections of Inspired Writers 89 

Chapter LX. — Means of Harmonizing Apparent Discrepancies 104 

PART FOURTH. 

BIBLICAL ANALYSIS 110 



8 CONTENTS. 



PART FIFTH. 

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY Page 122 

Chapter I. — Domestic Archaeology 124 

Chapter II. — Political Archaeology 176 

Chapter III. — Sacred Archaeology 209 

PART SIXTH. 

BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY 247 

Chapter I.— The First Races of Mankind 247 

Chapter II. — The Assyrians and Babylonians 249 

Chapter m.— The Egyptians 250 

Chapter IV. — The Jews 254 

Chapter V. — The Canaanites and Neighbouring Nations 265 

PART SEVENTH. 

BIBLICAL HISTORY 281 

Chapter I. — Historical Books of the Old Testament 282 

Chapter H. — Poetical Books 298 

Chapter III. — Prophetical Books 303 

Chapter IV. — Historical Books of the New Testament 316 

Chapter V. — Doctrinal Books 327 

Chapter VI.— Epistolary Books 338 

PART EIGHTH. 
BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY 342 

PART NINTH. 
BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY 363 



INTRODUCTION. 



Such a production as this has long been a desid- 
eratum in Biblical Literature. It is true, there are 
many works of great merit which treat separately 
of the topics embraced in this volume ; but they are 
mostly out of print, or inaccessible to the class of 
persons for whom this work is specially designed. 
Besides, these volumes are principally adapted for 
text-books for theological seminaries and professional 
theologians. Take, as specimens, the writings of 
Jahn, Michaelis, Eichhorn, Gesenius, Franck6, Ernes- 
ti, Moras, Gaussen, Winer, Gerard, Marsh, Carpenter, 
Kitto, Home, Stuart, and Robinson. Although the 
writings of these great authors are of untold value to 
the critical Biblical student, there are few who walk 
in the every-day path of Christian research, who 
have time, taste, or preliminary preparation, to read 
or study them with care. 

A work was, therefore, needed, for private stu- 
dents, and literary men in general — the design of 
which would be to present, in one regularly-arranged 
view, the leading principles of all those topics which 
are necessary to the proper and systematic study of 
the Bible. 



10 INTRODUCTION. 

The present volume is of such a character. The 
author has drawn his materials from the very best 
sources, on the different subjects of which he treats. 
On inspecting the table of contents, it will be seen, 
that after showing the importance of the study of 
the Bible, the author brings to view the leading 
topics of Biblical Literature — such as Biblical Phi- 
lology, Criticism, Interpretation, Analysis, Archae- 
ology, History, Ethnography, Geography, and Chro- 
nology. 

Of course, in embracing so vast a field of Biblical 
research, the work must be elementary. It is, how- 
ever, sufficiently copious to give a full and clear 
knowledge of the essential principles embraced in 
the various topics connected with the study of the 
Bible. 

It is particularly adapted to all under-graduates 
in the ministry, and private theological students, as 
well as to the advanced classes in Sunday Schools, 
and to High Schools, Seminaries, and Colleges. 

By its aid the Bible can be made the text-book, 
and a thorough and systematic course of study pur- 
sued in its contents. That the Bible should be a 
text-book in schools and colleges is now granted ; 
but, heretofore, no systematic course of study has 
been struck out. This can now be done to great 
advantage, by the aid of Dr. Strickland's perform- 
ance. 

It is divided into nine parts, and each part is again 
subdivided into chapters, with appropriate headings, 



INTRODUCTION. 11 

so that the student can readily find, in every depart- 
ment of Biblical Literature, whatever is necessary 
to throw light on the study of the Bible. It is a 
library in itself, in which the student will find the 
substance of what is contained in numerous large 
and costly works ; and so arranged and divested of 
all unnecessary technical stiffness, as to prove a con- 
venient thesaurus of the greatest value to all who 
love to search the Scriptures. 

And to all the aspirants to the ministry in the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, how important will 
this volume be ! It will be a great benefit to the 
Church to ask all the applicants for license to preach, 
to master this work, as a preliminary, as well as 
some other topics ; so that when the ministry is en- 
tered on, young and inexperienced minds may not 
be harassed with the double task of the preparatory 
and the necessary principal course, at the same time. 
The opportunities of the times enable all, or the 
greater number, to obtain elementary knowledge, to 
some degree, whether Biblical, theological, or liter- 
ary, before they enter upon the arduous work of 
even the first stages of the pastoral office. And, in- 
deed, the wants of the Church demand this, and the 
demand must be met. 

I have read the work in manuscript, and can 
readily recommend it to all for whom it is designed. 
Indeed, it is the only book extant which treats sys- 
tematically of the elements of Biblical Literature, 
in a manner adapted for popular use. 



12 INTRODUCTION. 

The subjects are treated in a clear, pleasing, and 
forcible manner, so as to satisfy a correct taste, and 
to elucidate the points discussed. I hope the vol- 
ume will have a wide circulation, and will therefore 
be eminently useful to the youth in our country, and 
all who engage in the study of Holy Scripture, so as 
to have a clear, full, and accurate knowledge of their 

religion. 

CHARLES ELLIOTT. 
Cincinnati, 0., April 12, 1852. 



MANUAL 



OF 



BIBLICAL LITERATURE 



THE IMPORTANCE OF BIBLICAL STUDIES. 

Assuming the authenticity and genuineness of the Bible, 
together with its plenary inspiration, it is not deemed im- 
portant to treat upon these subjects separately, but as they 
may fall within the line of observation in the discussion of 
the various topics embraced in this work. The discussion of 
these points belongs more particularly to other departments 
of sacred literature than those contemplated. As " all Scrip- 
ture is given by inspiration of God," — the writers of the 
Bible being the mere amanuenses of the Holy Spirit, com- 
municating nothing more and nothing less than what was 
dictated, — and as every word and sentence was thus from 
God, it is essentially important that every man should under- 
stand their meaning. 

To do this satisfactorily we must go directly to the sacred 
text. The practice of studying the Holy Oracles through 
the media of human expositions alone, and of obtaining a 
system of belief from the Writings of the Fathers, the De- 
crees of Councils, Synodical Conventions, Confessions of 
Faith, Articles of Religion, Systems of Theology, Commen- 
taries, Compends, Digests, &c, instead of obtaining it from 



14 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

the great standard of faith itself, is a pernicious and preva- 
lent evil. 

The Bible is adapted to every grade of intellect, and hence 
all are commanded to search its pages, being assured that it 
will ever prove an unerring guide in all matters of faith and 
practice. While the profoundest mind is lost in the explo- 
ration of its boundless and fathomless ocean of truth, the 
most superficial can comprehend its ever luminous revelations 
of mercy and salvation, and a child may grow wise unto 
eternal life in reading its contents. In this respect it is like 
its emblem, the sun, whose rays are equally adapted to the 
eye of the animalcula and the mastodon. He who made 
the eye and the light understood perfectly the nature of both, 
and also what was necessary to constitute an adaptation. He 
who made the human mind and the Bible — for both are 
traceable to the same divine origin — had a like regard. If 
there be in divine revelation anything hard or impossible of 
comprehension, it is not more remarkable than that the naked 
eye cannot gaze upon the meridian sun, or that, in all the 
departments of nature and science, there are mysteries im- 
penetrable to human vision. 

We would call away the mind from all human productions, 
in matters of belief and duty, and bring it into immediate 
contact with the mind of God ; and in regard to all that is 
difficult to understand, would recommend the sincere and 
humble inquirer, in his "lack of wisdom," to ask the assist- 
ance of " the Father of lights, from whom cometh down 
every good and perfect gift." The student, though, in the 
language of one, "he be the most learned, acute, and dili- 
gent, cannot, in the longest lifetime, obtain an entire knowl- 
edge of the Bible, because the more deeply he works the 
mine of sacred truth, the richer and more abundant he will 
find the ore." The contents of every other book may be 
exhausted, because they are the product of finite intellect — 
the contents of the Bible never. In reading a human pro- 
duction, mind is brought in contact with similar mind — the 



IMPORTANCE OF BIBLICAL STUDIES. 15 

finite with the finite — and the one may thoroughly exhaust 
the other ; but, in reading the Scriptures, the mind is brought 
into contact with God — the finite with the infinite — and 
hence there will be an interminable progression in Biblical 
knowledge. To assist in the profitable investigation of this 
inexhaustible storehouse of thought, the following suggestions 
are presented to the reader. 

In the study of any science order is important, and it is 
none the less so in the study of sacred science. Though the 
contents of the Bible are not reduced to what might be de- 
nominated a scientific method, and the arrangement and 
classification observable in human scientific productions, still 
they are susceptible of such a classification in regard to all 
the facts and doctrines therein embraced. In this respect the 
Bible is like the vast field of nature spread out before us by 
the same Divine Author. Over all this field nowhere can be 
found a botanic garden of spontaneous production containing 
the genus and species of every tree, shrub, plant, and flower. 
To obtain such a classification the botanist must traverse 
every zone, visit every island, and gather his specimens here 
and there, to complete his classification. The same remark 
will apply to the mineral as to the vegetable world. No 
cabinet of minerals and fossils has ever yet been found in the 
earth's crust. To collect such a cabinet the geologist must 
travel over its mountains and through its dells — he must 
perforate its rocks and examine their formation — classify their 
fossiliferous products and analyze the ores imbedded therein. 
Thus it is also in the animal world. No zoological collection 
has ever been found instinctively or fortuitously thrown to- 
gether. To find the various orders of each, the different parts 
of the world must be visited. All the materials for the above 
classifications have been furnished by the Creator ; but it is the 
work of man to arrange, combine, and classify them. The 
same remark will apply to every science. We have first 
the nucleus, and then the aggregation. Facts, naked and 
isolated, have been gathered up here and there; their 



16 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

affinities have been ascertained — their bearing and relations 
noted ; from these facts principles have been deduced, 
and upon these principles theories and systems have been 
established. 

The Bible is a boob of facts, which, like the varieties we 
meet with in the various departments of the physical world, 
are more or less important, and invite our investigation. In 
the Bible there may be some statements which are beyond 
the grasp of our reason — challenging our faith alone — but 
there are none inconsistent with her loftiest exercise. In the 
language of Coleridge, with propriety it may be said, "If 
there be anything in all the system of revealed religion in- 
consistent with reason, it does not belong to the household of 
faith." 

These facts are dispersed through sixty-six different books, 
written by more than forty different persons, in different ages 
and different parts of the world — in the deserts of Arabia, 
in the temple at Jerusalem, in the sumptuous palaces of 
Babylon, on the banks of the Euphrates and Jordan, and 
on the borders of the Mediterranean. A period of nearly 
two thousand years was occupied in its composition. Its 
writers were in every condition of life — kings, doctors, law- 
yers, vine-dressers, shepherds, and fishermen. They were of 
every grade of intellect and education, from the most astute 
and learned to the most humble and illiterate. The writer 
of its first five books was engaged with the pen of inspiration 
in chronicling the world's history ten centuries in advance 
of Herodotus, who is styled the father of profane history ; 
while the topics he discusses embrace all the important facts 
and events of the first two thousand years of the world's his- 
tory, never before chronicled by man. The truthfulness of 
the sacred record, in regard to the creation of the world and 
man, his fall and subsequent depravity, the successive 
judgments of Heaven upon guilty nations and cities, together 
with the whole scheme of human redemption, is stamped 
upon and attested by the physical and moral world. Its 



IMPORTANCE OF BIBLICAL STUDIES. 17 

sublime and awful events are written out upon the surface 
of the earth, and graven deep in the everlasting rocks, as the 
mark of God on the brow of Cain, and echo back the faith- 
fulness of its narratives. Its prophetic announcements, made 
thousands of years antecedently, have met with a literal and 
exact fulfilment, and now form a prominent part of the his- 
tory of the world. Time, their grand expounder, has demon- 
strated their truth, and is vindicating it from day to day; 
while science, in her discoveries, has shown the writers of the 
sacred books gifted with an inspiration divine and infallible. 
Its monuments, and testimonial signs and wonders, are found 
to be, everywhere and in every age, accordant with the de- 
scriptions of its writers, and commemorative of its truths. 

The Bible embraces every style of composition — the 
simple, beautiful and sublime. It contains history, chronol- 
ogy, geography, biography, archaeology, epistles, homilies, 
parables, metaphors, allegories, apothegms, proverbs, dramas, 
dissertations, and poetry of every species — pastoral, lyrical, 
elegiac, and epic. Its topics are innumerable — whole libra- 
ries have been written upon its exhaustless themes. It has 
been the subject of criticism, verbal and written, for a period 
of three thousand years. It has been in every laboratory of 
mind, and tested in every crucible of experiment, and, having 
been subjected to the most thorough and searching analysis, 
not one of all the truths in its vast storehouse has been in- 
validated. In all the investigations of science, not one single 
physical, mental, or moral error, has been discovered. Like 
pure gold, the assertions of the Bible have stood every test, 
unimpeached and untarnished. These truths, scattered like 
gems and flowers over the mountains, plains and valleys of 
the Bible, are all consistent with every other truth, and har- 
monious throughout, having u God for their author, and sal- 
vation for their end." 

The facts of the Bible are susceptible of classification, and 
it is the duty of the student of sacred literature to reduce 
them to order. Every Biblical student should collate and 



18 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

classify them for himself, with as much care and assiduity 
as though no one had gone over the field before him. The 
researches of another will not answer the purpose, as this 
work can with no more propriety be done by proxy than 
that of the linguist or mathematician. In studying the 
Bible it is of the utmost importance that attention be paid 
to order ; otherwise much that is valuable will be lost, while 
that which is gained will be comparatively unsatisfactory. 

The Bible should be studied under two aspects — the first 
has regard to the letter, and the second to the spirit — the 
body and the soul of the most magnificent creation of Al- 
mighty God. We should come to the study of the first as 
we would to the study of any other book claiming our atten- 
tion, applying all those rules which govern us in literary re- 
search and criticism. 

Having satisfied ourselves in regard to the external struc- 
ture of the temple, and passed its outer gates, we are then 
prepared, under the guidance of its presiding genius — the 
Holy Spirit — to enter its inner courts, and gaze with unveiled 
eyes upon its beautiful proportions, gorgeous drapery, sublime 
scenery, awful mysteries, and transcendent glories, as they 
break upon the astonished vision, like the mysterious charac- 
ters in the palace of Babylon, or the awful glory in the con- 
secrated temple of Jerusalem. 

Numerous Introductions to the study of the Bible, embra- 
cing almost every department of sacred literature, have been 
written, and, as the present work does not profess properly to 
belong to that class, a short history of these Introductions 
may not be out of place. 

It is the province of an Introduction critically to examine 
and discuss the historical relations of the individual books, 
as well as of the whole collection. It gives, on the particular 
books, discussions respecting their authors, and times of com- 
position, genuineness and integrity, contents and plan, the 
original language, its earliest history, the origin of the Bible 
collection or canon, its original language and versions, and 



IMPORTANCE OF BIBLICAL STUDIES. 19 

the history of the original text. It divides itself into two 
parts, general and particular. 

"It has been correctly observed," says Gesenius, in his 
Biblische Einleitung, "that this branch of learning still re- 
quires to be more accurately defined and limited — that, in 
particular, it often encroaches on the province of criticism 
and hermeneutics ; and certainly the latest authors are still 
too discursive, especially in taking up their materials for the 
general introduction, and in fact the older writers (and the 
modern among the English) have even brought together 
those branches of learning which are subsidiary to interpre- 
tation, as sacred history, antiquities, geography, &c. It will 
not, therefore, be inconsistent with my present purpose," he 
adds, "to attempt, at least, to mark out this limitation, and 
in doing so I shall principally keep in view the general in- 
troduction, because the boundaries of the particular are more 
accurately settled. The leading features are the same, both 
with respect to the Old and New Testaments, and it may 
even, in many particular points, be of use to treat the general 
part of both in connexion. Of this I would suggest the 
following fourfold division : — 

" 1. History of the cultivation and literature of the Hebrew 
people in general ; under which section might be digested the 
accounts of their language, Hebrew, Chaldee, and Hellenis- 
tic, with the history and character of each, and also of their 
writing. 

" 2. History of the canon ; or of the collection, arrange- 
ment, and ecclesiastical authority of the books. 

" 3. History of the original text ; the various fates and 
changes to which it has been subjected, and of the means of 
improving it— the latter of which belongs more particularly 
to the department of criticism. Here the authors of intro- 
ductory works appear to have been principally in doubt re- 
specting the extent of the points which they ought to discuss. 
The following principle will probably be found to mark a 
correct and proper division :— The criticism of the Old and 



20 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

New Testaments divides itself into two parts, historical and 
didactic. The first of these pursues the history of the text, 
discovers its changes, shows the critical labours which have 
been expended on it, and the documents in which the text 
has been handed down, namely, immediate, as manuscripts, 
and mediate, as ancient revisions. The second communicates 
the rules according to which the critic must avail himself of 
these helps in order to recover the original text with as much 
probability as possible. The historical part of this must now 
necessarily be comprehended under the learning which is 
comprised in an introduction ; but the didactic, which contains 
merely an application of the general rules of criticism to the 
materials here sketched out, must, by a strict limitation, be 
properly excluded, and preserved for criticism, as it is a sci- 
ence of a particular kind, or, at least, to be handled with 
great brevity. 

"4. In the hermeneutical part of the general introduction ; 
which is required to exhibit the aids for understanding the 
Bible, and directions for the use of those aids, and which 
many authors of introductory works, as Eichhorn and Ber- 
tholdt, entirely, or in part, omit. Jahn has, however, given 
them with considerable extent, including also the didactic 
part, at least as far as regards the investigation of language. 
To preserve consistency the last must be reserved for her- 
meneutics, in such a way that the author should limit him- 
self to the historical part, which belongs to it no less than 
the historical part does to criticism. The helps for under- 
standing it relate to language and things, and of course her- 
meneutics divides itself into an investigation of these two. 
For investigating the language, which is here the principal 
point, we have, as sources of information, the following: 
First, the interpretations of the books of Scripture which 
have been handed down to us from antiquity — that is, an- 
cient versions and expositions of the Old Testament by 
Rabbins, and of the New by the Fathers, which it is neces- 
sary to adduce and judge of. Second, our knowledge ari- 



IMPORTANCE OF BIBLICAL STUDIES. 21 

sing from other sources of the eastern languages and of the 
Greek as existing in profane authors, which must be applied 
to the thorough examination, correction, and establishment 
of those transmitted interpretations. The investigation of 
things is exhibited in that branch of knowledge which is 
called exegetical helps. This divides itself into historical, 
which includes Biblical geography, Biblical history, with 
chronology, and mythology; and also into dogmatic, which 
includes Biblical doctrines and morals. It is impossible, in 
an introduction, to treat these subjects fully ; nothing more 
can be given than a general idea of them. In this arrange- 
ment, however, doubts may arise with respect to the ancient 
versions, since they must be introduced as subsidiary to criti- 
cism, as well as to hermeneutics. Hence it is probably the 
most advisable course to give the general information re- 
specting them in the critical part, and their character, as far 
as regards interpretation, in that which is appropriated to 
hermeneutics. It must be remarked that the very last con- 
sideration is the identical point which is much neglected in 
recent works of this kind ; and this is the more to be regret- 
ted as the hermeneutical value of the versions is, on the 
whole, much greater than the critical, since their greater or 
less variations from the text do but very rarely indeed con- 
tain improvements of it, but, on the contrary, are, for the 
most part, founded on errors in the translations. In the 
particular introduction to the individual books only this dif- 
ference is to be observed in the plan, that some writers in 
this department, as Jahn, give an explanatory view of the 
contents of the books, which is omitted by most of the 
others. Besides introductions of an historical and critical 
character, and which are, properly speaking, literary, the 
idea of a practical introduction has been suggested and car- 
ried into effect — that is to say, an introduction which, setting 
aside discussions of a critical kind, or taking for granted the 
results of them, confines its attention to the books of Scrip- 
ture in a practical point of view, and gives directions for the 



22 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

use of them in reference to the religious instruction of youth 
and people in general. Such works are useful when the 
authors, resting on the firm basis of solid learning, make the 
religious and moral force in the particular books, sections, 
and characters of the Bible stand out prominent ; they will 
then often agree, in contents, with the view of religion and 
morals given in the Bible, and only vary from it in the free 
arrangement in which it is presented. 

"The first important steps for a thorough, learned, and 
critical treatment of what is called the general introduction, 
were made in the path opened by Hottinger, a man well, 
versed in oriental learning, and Leusden, a pupil of Buxtorf ; 
also by Walton and Simon, the former of whom, viz. Wal- 
ton, published, in his Prolegomena to the London Polyglot, 
very learned disquisitions on the language and writings of the 
Bible, the history of the text, and of the versions of the Old 
and New Testaments." 



fart |irst 

BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY. 



CHAPTER I. 

LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 

Biblical philology relates to tlie languages in which the 
Bible was originally written. These are the Hebrew and 
Chaldee of the Old Testament, and the Greek of the New. 
The importance of a knowledge of the original languages of 
the Scriptures to the critical expounder thereof cannot, with 
any show of consistency, be called in question at the present 
day. Without such a knowledge he cannot be fully qualified 
for his work, as one "that is approved unto God, and that 
needeth not to be ashamed, rightly dividing the word of 
truth." It is apparent to all who are acquainted with the 
languages that no translation, however accurate, can give a 
full and fair exhibition of its original. The style of a writer 
never can be translated ; and as it is often the case that much 
depends upon the style, and as no translation ever can reach 
it, much is lost. The version may be better, both as to 
the matter and style ; but it is not, and never can be, an exact 
representation of the original. In a translation we cannot 
be made fully acquainted with the original author. "We can 
know but little of the mind of Homer by the translations of 
Cowper and Pope. We learn what the latter were as poets ; 
but we are ignorant, to a great degree, of the father of pro- 
fane poetry. The facts of the Iliad and Odyssey are given, 
but their author does not narrate them. No one can claim 
to be a classical scholar, though he may have devoted a life- 
time to the study of translations. To attain such distinction 



24 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

he must read the classics of Greece and Borne, and not the 
translations of England or Germany. To qualify any man 
to speak or write critically of the merits of an author, it is 
conceded by all to be necessary that he have a knowledge of 
what the author has himself written. A version ought to 
be, as far as possible, an exact image of the original arche- 
type, in which image nothing should be drawn, either greater 
or less, better or worse, than the original, but so composed 
that it might be acknowledged as another original itself. A 
translator should use those words, and those words only, which 
clearly express all the meaning of the author, and in the 
same manner as the author. Where the translation, however, 
cannot be made ad verbum it must be made ad sensum. 

The English Bible corresponds to the original with suffi- 
cient exactness to impart all that is essential to salvation, and 
as such is "profitable for doctrine, reproof, instruction, and 
correction," being " able to make wise unto salvation, through 
faith in our Lord Jesus Christ." A man may therefore be 
a faithful minister of the gospel, who is qualified by " gifts, 
grace, and usefulness," to set forth its doctrines and to en- 
force its precepts, even though his knowledge of the Scrip- 
tures be confined to the English version. This, however, 
does not justify any who have the opportunity to acquire the 
original languages of Scripture for neglecting to do so. 

The Old Testament having been written in the Hebrew 
language, with the exception of a very small portion, which 
was written in the Chaldee, the attention of the student 
should first be directed to its study. In a classical course it 
is usual to study the Greek language first, and then proceed 
to those which are more ancient. There may be good and 
sufficient reasons for the adoption of such method in regard 
to those who have an opportunity of taking a college course ; 
but to those who have never enjoyed the advantages of a 
classical education, there can be no reason why they may not 
at once commence the study of the Hebrew. It certainly has 
the advantage of being the more simple and easy language. 



BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY. 25 

CHAPTER II. 
THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 

The Hebrew is generally regarded as the most ancient of all 
the oriental languages. Upwards of two thousand years 
before Christ it was a written language, and vernacular to 
the inhabitants of Babylonia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Arabia, 
and Ethiopia. It reached its greatest perfection in the days 
of David, and from that period began to decline, until the 
Babylonish captivity, when it became merged into the Chal- 
dee, Syriac, Talmudic and Rabbinic dialects, and finally was 
lost to the literary world. After it ceased to be a living lan- 
guage no efforts were made to interpret the few remaining 
manuscripts, which scarcely comprehended two-thirds of the 
Hebrew language, until two hundred years after Christ. 
From that time to the present it has been the theme of al- 
most endless criticism, in regard to its origin, the number 
and form of its letters, structure, orthoepy, and meaning. 



CHAPTER III. 
THE ARAMEAK OR SYRIAK LANGUAGE. 

The Aramean or Syrian language appears from the earliest 
times to have been divided into two grand branches, namely, 
the West Aramean, or Syriac, which was the dialect spoken 
to the west, in Syria and Mesopotamia ; and the East Ara- 
mean, generally denominated the Chaldee, which was spoken 
to the east, in Babylonia, Assyria, and Chaldea. There is 
no difference, however, between them. Michaelis has re- 
marked that the Chaldee of Daniel becomes Syriac if read 
by a German or Polish Jew. One is distinguished from the 
other by the characters in which they are written. Down to 

2 



26 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

the time of Abraham, Chaldee was identical with the He- 
brew. That this was the dialect of Abraham is evident from 
the fact that he was a Chaldean. Isaac and his family spoke 
Hebrew, which was the language of Canaan ; and Hebrew 
continued to be the language of their descendants till the 
time of the Babylonian captivity. During the seventy years' 
captivity these dialects were more or less merged. On the 
return of the Jews to Jerusalem the priests read the law 
publicly to the people, and gave an exposition of it in Chal- 
dee. This was the commencement of those written exposi- 
tions, called Targums, the most ancient of which now extant 
is that written by Onkelos, a disciple of Hillel, who died sixty 
years B. C. In purity of style Onkelos equals the Chaldaic 
sections of Daniel and Ezra, and his fidelity to the Hebrew 
text is such that he deserves to be looked upon as a transla- 
tor rather than a paraphrast. Besides the exposition of 
Onkelos, seven others are known to be in existence ; but this 
is by far the most important. Whether the Hebrew lan- 
guage was or was not the first language of man, and that in 
which the Almighty communicated his will to our first pa- 
rents and the chosen depositaries of divine revelation until 
the days of Moses, is a question which, with our present 
means of knowledge, it is impossible satisfactorily to deter- 
mine. It certainly bears many internal marks of a high 
antiquity. The majority of Hebrew words, for instance, are 
descriptive — that is, they specify the prominent or distin- 
guishing quality of the person, animal, place, or thing, 
which they designate ; and the vocabulary, though compara- 
tively poor in abstract and metaphysical terms, is rich in 
words having immediate reference to those objects of sense 
with which a nomadic people might be supposed to be most 
conversant. Thus, there are no less than two hundred and 
fifty distinct botanical terms in the Old Testament, and 
synonymous forms of expression for the common actions and 
occurrences of life are numerous and varied. Among these 
synonymes have been counted no less than fourteen different 



BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY. 27 

words of which each signifies to break, there are ten words 
answering to the verb to seek, nine express the act of dying, 
fourteen convey the idea of trust in God, nine signify the 
remission of sins, and eight denote darkness ; and to express 
the observance of the laws of God there are no less than 
twenty-five phrases. The language appears to have attained 
its utmost possible development at a very early period, and 
to have remained subsequently, for ages, in the same stage, 
without progression or retrogression. This is proven by 
comparing the books of the Pentateuch with those of the 
later prophets : the latter differ from the former only by the 
disuse of a few words, which, in the course of centuries, had 
become obsolete ; and by the introduction of sundry terms 
which had been ingrafted on the language by intercourse 
with the Assyrians and Babylonians. There are, however, 
two hundred and sixty-eight verses of pure Chaldee in the 
Old Testament, 

A certain stiffness of construction, joined to great energy 
and simplicity, appears to be the most prominent feature of 
Hebrew and its cognate dialects. The fundamental structure 
of these dialects bears the impress of premeditation and 
design. Unlike all other idioms, the roots, or elementary 
words, are dissyllable and triliteral : they are, for the most 
part, the third person singular, the preterite tense, active 
voice of the verb ; and seem to have been originally framed 
for the express purpose of representing ideas in the simplest 
possible form, while the application of these ideas to denote 
the varied circumstances of life (such as time past, present, 
or future — personal agency, passion, or feeling) is effected, 
generally, by mere changes of the vowels, placed above, 
within, or below the letters of the root. Besides the vowels, 
a certain set of consonants set aside for this office, and 
hence called serviles, are sometimes used in modifying the 
meaning of the roots. With respect to the alphabetical 
system of the Hebrews, it has generally been the custom to 
attribute the introduction of the square characters to Ezra. 



28 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

It has lately, however, been shown that the square characters 
had no existence till probably two or three centuries after 
the Christian era. Kopp traces the gradual formation of 
these characters from the inscription on the bricks of Babylon 
down through the Phoenician or Samaritan letters on the 
Maccabean coins, and thence to the Palmyrene inscriptions 
found among the ruins of Palmyra; and Gesenius, in his 
last edition of the grammar, admits that the square, or 
modern Hebrew character, is descended from the Palmyrene. 
The Rabbinical style of writing now in use among the Jews 
is merely a cursive modification of the square character, 
adopted for ease and expedition. 

The Hebrew language, honoured by the Almighty as the 
first medium of written revelation, had, in ancient times, pre- 
dominance over a far greater extent of territory than is com- 
monly supposed. It may be inferred from various passages 
of sacred history that the Canaanites, or the original inhabi- 
tants of Canaan, conversed freely in Hebrew, or some closely 
allied dialect, with Abraham, and, many years subsequently, 
with the tribes of Israel, under Joshua. Thus the spies, for 
instance, sent by Joshua to survey the country, had no re- 
course to the aid of an interpreter in their interview with 
Rahab and others. Moreover, the Canaanitish names of 
places and persons, both in the time of Abraham and that 
of Joshua, are pure Hebrew terms. Melchizedek, Abimelech, 
Salem, Jericho, and, in fact, all names recorded in Scripture, 
of persons, cities, and towns, in Canaan, might be cited as 
examples. That the Canaanites formed part and portion of 
the people known in profane history by the name of Phoeni- 
cians, has been clearly proved by the ethnographical re- 
searches of Gesenius and other German scholars; and in 
the Septuagint the words Phoenicians and Canaanites, Phoe- 
nicia and Canaan, are indiscriminately used. Hence the 
obvious inference that Hebrew was the vernacular of the 
Phoenicians, and that it was, therefore, the language of Tyre, 
of Sidon, of Carthage, and of all the numerous colonies 



BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY. 29 

founded by that intelligent and enterprising people. We 
may thus trace the use of Hebrew, as a vernacular tongue, 
or as a medium of communication, all round the coast of the 
Mediterranean, with the exception of Italy and (in part) of 
Greece. When the Old Testament was written probably no 
language was so widely diffused as the Hebrew. It occupied 
just such a place as the Greek did in the days of the apostles. 
With the sole exception of the Jews, however, the nations 
by whom the Hebrew was spoken, have either passed away 
from the face of the earth, or have become amalgamated 
with other races. The number of Jews now dispersed 
throughout the world is generally estimated at about seven 
millions. Of these, there are only one hundred and seventy- 
five thousand in Palestine and Syria. In England there are 
thirty thousand Jews, of whom twenty thousand reside in 
London. But they are still more numerous in some parts 
of continental Europe. At Warsaw, for instance, they form 
one-fourth part of the population. Professor Gaussen says, 
"The restless feet of God's ancient people are pressing, at 
this very hour, the snows of Siberia and the burning sands 
of the desert." Gobat found numbers of them in the eleva- 
ted plains of Abyssinia, eighteen hundred miles to the south 
of Cairo ; and when Denham and Clapperton, the first trav- 
ellers that ventured across the great Sahara, arrived on the 
banks of the lake Tchad, they also found that the wandering 
Jew had preceded them by many a long year. When the 
Portuguese settled in the Indian Peninsula they found three 
distinct classes of Jews ; and when the English lately took 
possession of Aden, in the south of Arabia, the Jews were 
more in number than the Gentiles. By a census taken within 
the last year, in Russia, they amount to two million two 
hundred thousand ; so that their population, in that immense 
empire, exceeds that of the island of Ceylon. Morocco con- 
tains three hundred thousand, and Tunis one hundred and 
fifty thousand. In the one small town of Sana, the capital 
of Arabia Felix, they assemble together in eighteen syna- 



30 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

gogues. Yemen counts two hundred thousand ; the Turkish 
empire, two hundred thousand — of which Constantinople 
alone contains eighty thousand. At Brody, where the 
Christians, who are ten thousand in number, have only three 
churches, the Jews, twenty thousand in number, have one 
hundred and fifty synagogues. Hungary has three hundred 
thousand ; Cracovic twenty-two thousand. In a word, it is 
supposed that, were all the Jews assembled together, they 
would form a population of seven millions ; so that, could 
they be transported to the land of their fathers, this very 
year, they would form a nation more numerous and powerful 
than Switzerland. 

From the first promulgation of the written word, special 
provision was made for its preservation. A distinct command 
had reference to the place where the book of the law was to 
be deposited. The multiplication of copies was also provided 
for by a divine decree. It was preserved by the Jews in 
their captivity in Babylon, and found in the secret vault, 
beneath the ruins of the temple, after their return. It was 
read publicly by Ezra to all the people, and, after the canon 
was completed, the various books were, by him, collected, 
and arranged in their present order. When the temple and 
city were destroyed by the Romans, the sacred treasure was 
still carefully guarded, and learned Jews opened schools for 
its study in Egypt and Syria. Copies were multiplied in 
different places, and by different persons and institutions. 
The Jews have, as a people, been, as it were, the life and 
body-guard of the Holy Book, from the earliest period of its 
publication until the present time. 



BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY. 31 

CHAPTER IV. 

THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 

The Greek language next claims our attention, as being the 
vernacular of our Saviour and his Apostles, and the medium 
through which they communicated the glad tidings of the 
new dispensation to the world. It has been asserted that 
the Gospel of Matthew was originally written in Hebrew, but 
it is now generally conceded by the most eminent Biblical 
critics that it was written in Greek. 

The ancient Greek language was divided into four princi- 
pal dialects — the Attic, the Ionic, the Doric, and the JEolic — 
distinguished from each other by their varieties of orthogra- 
phy and pronunciation. When, under Philip of Macedon, 
the Grecian republics lost their freedom, and became more 
or less united under one government, the various dialects 
were gradually amalgamated into one. The language which 
thus sprang up, from this intermixture of dialects, differed 
materially from that of books preserved in the writings of 
the early poets and philosophers. It, however, became cur- 
rent wherever the Greek language was spoken ; it was even 
used by the later writers, and, on account of its wide diffu- 
sion, received the name of tcoivrj dtdXearog, the common 
dialect. 

In the flexions of nouns, in the New Testament, there are 
no traces of any of the ancient dialects except the Attic ; 
but in the flexion of verbs there is more variety, the Attic 
furnishing the most examples, the Doric affording others, 
while many of the forms are exclusively to be met with in 
the later idiom. The influence of Hebrew characteristics is 
likewise to be traced in the New Testament in several pas- 
sages ; the phraseology being Hebrew, while the words are 
Greek. This is more especially observable in the frequent 
use of a double substantive, (arising from the paucity of 



32 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

adjectives in Hebrew,) and in the use of the words of God, 
as indicative of the superlative degree. The Greek alphabet 
is a modification of the Phoenician, and it is to the adoption 
of this alphabet, which is but ill-adapted to express any 
sounds except those of Shernitic origin, that many of the 
anomalies of the Greek language are to be attributed. 

At the time of the first preaching of Christianity the more 
civilized nations of the Roman empire (however dissimilar 
their respective vernacular tongues) were united by the bond 
of a common language, which, to them, was almost the only 
known medium of poetry, learning, and philosophy. That 
language was the Greek. In certain countries, as in Greece 
itself, in Egypt, and, as some say, in Syria, it was used in 
the common affairs of life, but everywhere it was the lan- 
guage of literature, and, as such, held the same position that 
was occupied by the Latin during the middle ages. The con- 
quests of Alexander the Great had been the primary cause, 
under Providence, of the wide diffusion of this language, 
and, although the Grecian empire was afterwards supplanted 
by the Roman, yet the civilization, the arts, and language of 
Greece, long remained predominant. 

It is generally supposed that the autographs of the evan- 
gelists and apostles were not preserved beyond the com- 
mencement of the third century, even if they remained in 
existence so long ; but, prior to that period, many copies of 
the sacred writings had been made and dispersed among 
the infant Churches. The most ancient copies appear gen- 
erally to have been written on Egyptian papyrus, a very 
perishable material, none of which have reached our times. 

Innumerable MSS. of the New Testament, from that of the 
Codex Alexandrinus, in the fifth century, down to those of 
the eighth, and on until the time of printing, have existed ; 
and some of the more important may be found in libraries 
at the present day. These have been compared, from time 
to time, by the most eminent Biblical critics, and the integrity 
of the original text has thus been secured. 



BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY. 33 



CHAPTER V. 

HINTS IN REGARD TO THE STUDY OF THE LAN- 
GUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 

Professor Francke says, in his " Study of the Scriptures," 
that " with ministers the Greek language is not to be studied 
as it would be by the professed grammarian, but simply 
with a view to divinity and the New Testament; though 
certainly a student may profitably cultivate a larger acquaint- 
ance with it afterwards, provided the Hebrew and other 
necessary studies be not neglected. So much of it, however, 
as is really essential may be easily acquired by attending to 
the following observations : — 

u The first seven chapters of Matthew's Gospel should be 
read with an accurate version until the learner be able to 
translate the Greek text, without difficulty, into his own or 
any other language. He ought not, however, in this his 
first attempt to be anxious to comprehend all the principles 
of grammatical construction, nor, on account of partial igno- 
rance in this particular, should he forego the improvement 
which must ever attend a frequent translating of the text. 
Yet. in order that no delay may be occasioned through a 
want of some acquaintance with the grammar, it will be 
proper to read and review frequently the paradigms of the 
declensions and conjugations with other grammatical rudi- 
ments, and thus gradually impress them on the mind. 
When the study of these accompanies a perusal of the seven 
chapters, theory and practice mutually assist each other. It 
remains, notwithstanding, to devote more time to the latter 
than to the former — to the reading the New Testament than 
to studying the grammar. Practice may prove a substitute 
for theory, but theory can avail nothing without practice. 
When the seven chapters in question have been thoroughly 
studied, and the requisite paradigms have been familiarized, 

2* 



34 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

the New Testament should be read through in its natural 
order, with a collated and accurate version, and the signifi- 
cation and grammatical nature of words may be sought 
for in a lexicon. The student should impress the signifi- 
cation of words on his memory by writing them, or by re- 
peatedly reading the chapters, accordingly as he may deem 
either method adapted to his genius. Students should re- 
mark that this reading is not to be prosecuted in an irregular 
and inconstant manner. Other pursuits must submit to a 
temporary or at least partial cessation, lest they obliterate 
what has been learned, and lest a distaste for this should be 
acquired, when long-continued labors are not accompanied 
with that improvement with which they would, in the course 
of a few weeks, be otherwise attended. Words which are 
continually recurring, under different forms and various com- 
binations, are, without much difficulty, impressed on the 
mind. It is, therefore, a judicious distribution of time to allot 
a stated period to the study of a language, and remit, during 
that term, every other pursuit It is proper to remark here 
that every one should take into consideration his time, his 
opportunities, his genius, &c, and not prematurely draw 
conclusions unfavorable to himself, from comparing his own 
method and progress with those of others, while he perhaps 
enjoys, in a higher degree, the means of acquiring other 
branches of this study equally useful and important. 

" The New Testament being perused in this manner, and in 
as short a period as possible, it should undergo a second 
reading. A student of divinity could scarcely be so dull as 
not to gain, in this way, an acquaintance with the New Tes- 
tament within three months. In acquiring a knowledge of 
the Greek tongue, as well as preserving it when attained, it 
will prove of considerable advantage if the learner accustom 
himself to carry a pocket edition of the Greek Testament 
about with him, and when any text is propounded, either in 
public or private, to search it out immediately, and collate 
the original with it. 



BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY. 35 

" The Hebrew language next claims our attention. As it 
regards the order, whether the Hebrew or Greek be first 
studied, is not at all important. The method which I shall 
propose for acquiring the Hebrew language resembles that 
prescribed for the Greek. The first four chapters of Genesis 
should be studied and collated with an accurate version until 
the learner be capable of rendering the Hebrew text into his 
vernacular idiom without the aid of a translation. It will 
next be proper to commit to memory some rudiments of the 
grammar, so as to enable the learner to know what are pre- 
fixes and affixes, as well as the more necessary paradigms. 
More time, however, must be allotted to reading the text it- 
self than to studying the grammar, which will undoubtedly 
be attained with greater facility and pleasure when the lan- 
guage is become in some measure familiarized. Experience 
has repeatedly and clearly evinced to the conviction of many 
besides myself, that, in the course of only four days, these 
chapters may be perfectly known — so known as that the 
student shall be able to translate the text into another lan- 
guage, to ascertain the roots and their signification, and to 
separate from them the prefixes and affixes with which they 
stand connected. The great assistance which this must afford 
in a second reading is evident. Surely a week so employed 
is calculated to improve a learner more than three months 
spent over the grammar, and in the practice of analyzing 
alone, through a dislike to which many persons have totally 
given up the study of the Hebrew tongue. 

" The Old Testament being thus thoroughly perused, which 
we have known some do in the course of three months, it 
may be read a second time, and in a shorter period, remem- 
bering that it should be a chief concern with the student not 
to lose what was acquired in the first reading. 

" In learning a language it is a practice of no small utility 
for two or three to unite in the prosecution of their studies, 
where it is practicable, as they will mutually assist each 
other. 



36 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

" The following rules should be observed in the study of 
language : — 

" 1. Never be weary of writing the signification of words. 

" 2. When the root of any word is not of easy attainment, 
write the word in the margin, and, instead of searching it 
out in a lexicon, ascertain it from a tutor or friend. 

" 3. The Biblical student should carefully guard against 
reading without rule or plan ; he must proceed through the 
books of the inspired writings in their regular succession. 

" 4. Let it be deeply impressed on the mind that all things 
cannot be learned at once. It is not requisite that the stu- 
dent should, in the first reading, make himself master of every 
difficulty. 

" 5. The text should be frequently read aloud ; the custom 
of reading mentally often induces a habit of stammering. 

" 6. The tutor should read the text and cause his pupils 
carefully to imitate his pronunciation. 

" 7. Frequently review what has been read — at least once a 
week. 

" 8. The Book of Chronicles should follow the Book of 
Kings. Those parts of the Hagiographa which are written 
in Chaldee may, in the first reading, be omitted. 

" 9. Different teachers should not be employed. 

" 10. Words that seldom or but once occur may be noted 
on paper. 

"11. Proper substantives, which are not easily distinguish- 
able from appellatives, should be marked with a pen." 

The following is Professor Tefft's plan, which has been 
pronounced by competent authority to be the best which has 
been devised. It will be seen that all plans proposing to 
instruct without a teacher must be deficient, more or less 
especially when applied to the dead languages : — 

" 1. The entire grammar of the language must be pre- 
sented to the eye. 

" 2. At the same time it must be represented, by a com- 
petent teacher, to the ear. 



BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY. 37 

" 3. The pupil having before him the visible, and listening 
to the audible representations of the language, must himself 
utter, in unison with his teacher, what he hears and sees. 

" 4. The act of seeing, hearing, and uttering the forms of 
the language, must be repeated until they are fastened on 
the memory, as near as may be, without the possibility of 
mistake, forgetfulness, or loss." 

To carry out these general principles, Professor Tefft has 
executed a series of charts for each language, of immense 
size for schools, but in reduced dimensions for small classes 
and individuals. The smaller are perfect fac-similes of the 
larger charts. On these charts everything to be committed 
to memory is presented. The teacher standing before the 
large chart, points with his rod to what he utters, which the 
pupil sees and hears at once, and then imitates, as above 
explained. Each portion of the chart or lesson is repeated 
publicly in class, or to individual scholars, until they can 
easily and readily repeat it themselves, when, with the 
'.mailer or hand-chart in his room, all is reiterated at pleas- 
are, until a perfect mastery is gained over each lesson. 
While this process of instruction is going forward, innumer- 
able practical applications are made, that the pupil may, all 
through the course, know how to use the information he is 
obtaining, as well as feel the importance of absolute accuracy 
in what he professes to have learned. These applications, 
altogether too numerous and complicated to be given in detail 
here, are the most ingenious and valuable portion of Professor 
Tefft's plan. To appreciate this plan fully, the reader should 
procure a set of the professor's charts, together with the 
accompanying books, which, as we know from personal ob- 
servation, will impart a knowledge of the Greek and Hebrew 
languages in less than one-fourth of the time usually em- 
ployed; besides, the work done is thorough and effectual, 
and the knowledge, from the very nature of its reception, is 
scarcely, if ever, lost or forgotten. The plan has received 
the wa,rm approbation of some of the greatest linguists of 



38 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

America, and needs only to be known to be universally re- 
ceived and appreciated. 

For trie study of the Greek New Testament the following 
text-books are recommended : Bloomfleld's Greek Testament, 
or Bagster's Critical Greek and English, in parallel columns ; 
Robinson's Greek Lexicon, Stuart's Greek Grammar of the 
New Testament, Winer's Idioms of the Greek Language of 
the New Testament, M'Clintock's First and Second Book in 
Greek, and Robinson's Buttmann (late edition). For the 
study of the Hebrew Old Testament, Biblia Hebraica, edited 
by Aug. Hahn ; Gesenius's Hebrew Lexicon ; Gesenius's 
Hebrew Grammar, with Exercises and Chrestomathy, edited 
by Conant. The above are believed to be the most valuable 
of any works of the kind extant. 



BIBLICAL CRITICISM. 



CHAPTER I. 

OBJECTS OF BIBLICAL CRITICISM. 

The objects of Biblical criticism are the several kinds of 
difficulties which occur in the sacred writings, and which 
must be removed in order to the right understanding of 
these writings. As all difficulties must regard either the 
reading or the sense, criticism is two-fold — corrective or emen- 
datory, being employed in determining the true reading ; and 
explanatory or exegetical, discovering the genuine sense. 
The latter is treated of in the chapter on Biblical Exegesis, 
and the object of this chapter is to treat exclusively of the 
former. 

The first writer who directed his attention to the criticism 
of the Bible was Origen, who was born in Egypt, in the 
second century. His criticism was directed to the correction 
of the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible 
made at Alexandria for the benefit of the Greek Jews. He 
ascertained that in the various manuscript copies of the 
Septuagint which he had collected there were alterations, 
made either by design or carelessness of transcribers, which 
caused them to differ materially from each other. The name 
given to this work is Biblia Hexapla, or Bible in six columns. 
The first column was occupied by — 1. The Hebrew, which 
he made the basis or standard. 2. The Hebrew in Greek 
characters, 3. The version of Aquila. 4. The version of 
Symmachus. 5. The version of the LXX., or Septuagint. 
6. The version of Theodotion. In those books which contained 



40 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 






likewise two anonymous versions, and occupied, therefore, 
eight columns, it was called Biblia Octapla, and in those 
passages where a third anonymous version was introduced, 
it was called Biblia Enneapla. Inasmuch as out of the six 
columns which ran through the whole work, only four were 
occupied with Greek translations, the work has been called 
by some Tetrapla. These, however, are only different names 
of one work. It is said Origen was twenty-eight years in 
making preparation for writing the Hexapla. It was begun 
at Csesarea, and finished at Tyre. This immense work was 
placed in the library at Csesarea, where it was consumed by 
fire on the irruption of the Saracens. Origen was followed 
in his labors by Lucian, a presbyter of the Church at Antioch, 
and Hesychius, an Egyptian bishop. 

The Scriptures, as well as all other writings, being preserved 
and diffused by transcription, were unavoidably liable to be 
corrupted, and in the copies of them different readings are 
actually found, whence arises the necessity of criticism for 
determining the true reading. In order to this it will be 
proper to ascertain the nature of a various reading — to point 
out the sources of false readings — to distinguish the several 
kinds of them, and to lay down rules for judging of the 
genuine reading. This subject, which involves an inquiry 
respecting fact, namely, what the author wrote, may be 
compared to a judicial procedure, in which the critic sits on 
the bench, and the charge of corruption in the reading is 
brought against the text. The witnesses from whom evi- 
dence is to be obtained respecting what the author wrote, are 
manuscript copies, ancient editions, old versions, and other 
books of antiquity, the authors of which quoted the text 
from manuscripts. 



BIBLICAL CRITICISM. 41 



CHAPTER n. 

THE NATURE OF A VARIOUS READING. 

However plain the meaning of a various reading may seem 
to be, it has been sometimes understood so as to introduce 
confusion or mistake. Some have allowed the name only to 
such readings as may possibly have proceeded from the 
author ; but this restriction is improper. According to this 
definition all the differences of copies are reducible to four 
heads. 

1. Such as are improperly called various readings — sole- 
cisms, absurdities, palpable blunders of transcribers, typo- 
graphical errors, differences in syllabication, &c., which take 
in the greatest part of the variations found in copies, but are 
to be reckoned, some corruptions, others trifles, none various 
readings. To refuse these, however, the name of various 
readings is improper, for it is to call that no reading which 
is actually read in some copies ; and it is useless, for the 
merit and the real occasion of a reading are often matters of 
difficult discussion. 

2. Such as it is doubtful whether they be improperly 
various readings, or whether they be properly such as capable 
of having come down from the author — readings, for in- 
stance, in quotations which may have been taken either from 
a copy or from memory. Such, too, should be considered as 
various readings till sufficient reason appear for rejecting 
them on examination. 

3. Such as are real and proper various readings, since 
any of them might have been the original reading, but of 
no importance — synonymous words, for example, or such as 
do not alter the sense ; and of this kind there are many. 

4. Such readings as are both real and important, as making 
an alteration in the sense ; and these are not very numerous. 



42 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

This division of various readings, when accurately defined, 
amounts to no more than this, that some are genuine and 
some corruptions ; some are important and some trivial ; but 
it does not imply that all these kinds are not truly various 
readings. 

To speak properly, wherever, in two copies of a writing, 
there is a difference, that difference forms a various reading, 
except only when it regards the manner of syllabication. 
For example, \pr\vr\ or elprjvr], dvrel or dvrl, etpig or eptg, 
Kai or ice, <fcc. 

Every reading different from what was originally written 
by the author is a false reading, or a corruption ; and every 
various reading shows that there is a corruption in some of 
the copies; for two different readings cannot both be the 
original one of the author ; but every various reading is not 
of itself a corruption, for it may be the very one which pro- 
ceeded from the author. 



CHAPTER III. 

SOUKCES OF FALSE HEADINGS. 

For determining between various readings it is of great use 
to know the sources of false readings, which are reducible to 
two, viz., chance and design. 

To chance are to be ascribed all the mistakes made by a 
transcriber or copyist, without his intending them at the 
time or perceiving them afterwards. Haste and carelessness 
have produced many mistakes, and might introduce false 
readings of every possible sort, and have rendered some 
copies extremely inaccurate. A transcriber might become 
inattentive and absent-minded, and thus not write what was in 
his copy, but whatever he happened to be thinking about at the 
time. To this cause some false readings are to be attributed, 
and such, too, as seem most strange and unaccountable. 



BIBLICAL CRITICISM. 43 

To ascertain more fully the occasions of false readings, it 
ought to be observed that as a transcriber sometimes wrote 
from a copy before him, so, at other times, he wrote from 
the mouth of a person who dictated to several at once, in 
both of which cases mistakes might arise from reading wrong, 
and, in the latter, from hearing wrong. 

Many letters, both in Hebrew and Greek, are similar in 
form, and more were similar, according to the modes of writ- 
ing used in some ages, than now ; such letters might easily 
be, and have often been, put one for another ; and acquaint- 
ance with the several successive modes of writing will show 
both the occasions of false readings thence arising, and the 
times of their introduction. 

Many false readings have arisen from confounding letters 
or words similar in sound, especially by reason of indistinct- 
ness, either in pronouncing or in hearing, when one dictated 
and others wrote. 

A transcriber sometimes gave a false reading by writing a 
word while the sound of a preceding word was still in his 
mind. 

A transcriber having read or heard a whole clause at once, 
and retaining the sense, but forgetting some of the precise 
words, wrote a synonymous word in the place of what was 
in his copy. To this head belong very many various read- 
ings. 

A reader or transcriber casting his eye on a preceding line 
or word, and not observing the mistake, would write over 
again w T hat he had already written, which would especially 
happen when, in the place on which he happened to cast his 
eye, he found the same or similar words or letters as he had 
last written ; or, if he cast his eye on a word or line subse- 
quent to where he was writing, and especially if he there 
found a word similar to what he had written last, or to what 
he should have written next, he would readily write from 
that subsequent place, omitting all that intervened. Having 
written one or more words from a wrong place, and not ob- 



44 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

serving it, or not choosing to erase it, he might return to the 
right line, and thus make an improper insertion of a word, 
or a whole sentence. Or, when a transcriber had made an 
omission, and afterwards observed it, he then subjoined what 
he had omitted, and thus produced a transposition. 

From these occasions of false readings, several principles 
may be deduced for forming a proper decision in regard to 
various readings. 

1. If a reading which is easily accounted for, from an or- 
dinary blunder of a transcriber, be found only in a few man- 
uscripts, it is, in all probability, a false reading. 

2. If a reading which yields no sense, or suits not the 
connexion, or disagrees with other texts, can be naturally 
accounted for by an ordinary mistake of transcribers, it is a 
false reading. 

3. Among different readings, that is probably the genuine 
one from which the others may have easily arisen, but which 
could not so naturally arise from them. 

4. Hence the most unusual reading is, generally speaking, 
the true one : for a transcriber would not so readily write it 
by mistake as one to which he was more accustomed. 

5. Hence, also, the fuller reading is generally the genuine 
one, whenever there is no reason to suspect an interpolation ; 
for a letter, a word, or a sentence, may be more easily omit- 
ted than added, when there is nothing to suggest the addi- 
tion. 

The second source of false readings is design. All such 
as are made knowingly and wilfully are to be ascribed to 
this source, and also such as, having been made accidentally, 
are wilfully allowed to remain after being perceived. Mis- 
takes accidentally made have often been designedly permit- 
ted to remain uncorrected, that the beauty or price of the 
manuscript might not be lessened by disfiguration. 

Many false readings are owing to assimilation : when a 
transcriber had once found or written a word wrong he pur- 
posely altered that, or related words, in conformity to the 



BIBLICAL CRITICISM. 45 

mistake. Critical transcribers sometimes transferred what 
they thought a clearer or fuller expression, or added a cir- 
cumstance to one place from a parallel passage — a liberty 
often taken, especially in the Gospels ; and therefore of two 
readings, one of which is exactly conformable to a corre- 
spondent passage, and the other not, but yet consistent with 
it, the latter is preferable. 

Critics sometimes corrected the ISTew Testament from the 
Greek version of the Old ; and therefore when one reading of 
a quotation agrees exactly with that version, and another not 
so exactly, the former, if not well supported, is suspicious, 
and the latter preferable. Critics sometimes altered the text 
of the New Testament in conformity to the Vulgate or Latin 
version, and readings plainly arising from this cause deserve 
no regard. They sometimes also altered their copies with a 
view to correct some word in them which they did not un- 
derstand, or considered faulty; and, therefore, when of two 
readings one is perfectly clear and the other difficult or ob- 
scure, but such as may be explained by the help of antiquity 
or perfect knowledge of the language, the former is suspicious 
and the latter is probably genuine. Critical transcribers 
sometimes omitted words which they considered superfluous. 
Critics in transcribing sometimes added words for illustrating 
what they thought defective or improper. It was common 
to write alterations or additions for the sake of illustration, as 
glosses on the margin, from which transcribers afterwards 
took them sometimes into the text, and for this reason the 
fuller reading, whenever it could serve tor illustration or con- 
nexion, is generally suspicious, and to be rejected. 

Persons have sometimes made alterations in the copies of 
Scripture with a wilful intention of corrupting them, in order 
to answer some particular purpose. 

It has been a question whether the Jews have, in any in- 
stance, wilfully corrupted the Old Testament? It is denied, 
because of their veneration for the Scriptures, their not being 
accused of it by Christ, the impossibility of their doing it 



46 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

afterwards without detection, and their having left so many 
predictions favourable to Christianity. But it is answered 
that their veneration for the Scriptures gives no absolute se- 
curity — that there are good reasons why Christ did not ac- 
cuse them, though guilty — that they might hope to avoid 
detection by the ignorance of Hebrew among the first Chris- 
tians — that the earliest who understood it do charge them 
with wilful corruptions — that their not going all lengths is 
no proof that they have attempted none — that evidence of a 
single instance would outweigh all general arguments — and 
that though the charge against them has been carried too far, 
yet there is sufficient evidence that for the honour of their own 
nation, or from hatred to Christianity, they have wilfully 
corrupted some texts, and in others given the preference to 
false readings which had at first arisen from other causes. 

Some false readings, though not so many as have been 
imputed to them by the Fathers, and by others on their 
authority, were introduced or attempted by the ancient her- 
etics, purposely in favour of their errors ; but such were easily 
detected and soon rejected. 

The prevailing party in the Church, who have always 
called themselves the orthodox, had it much more in their 
power to introduce and transmit false readings, and they 
have sometimes introduced them, and oftener given them the 
preference after being accidentally made, on purpose to favour 
some received opinion, or to preclude an objection against it. 

Mistaken zeal is forward to impute false readings to design 
in those whom it opposes ; but we ought not to ascribe them 
to this principle rashly, where they might have naturally 
arisen from chance, or where there is no positive presumption 
or evidence of design. 



BIBLICAL CRITICISM. 47 



CHAPTER IV. 

KINDS OF FALSE HEADINGS. 

False readings are of four kinds — 1. Omissions ; 2. Ad- 
ditions ; 3. Transpositions; and 4. Alterations — and each 
of them may be either of letters, of words, or of sentences. 
It will be useful to notice some of the most remarkable of 
each kind, especially such as are found either in several 
manuscripts, in received versions, or in printed editions, point- 
ing out how they have arisen and how they are corrected. 

1. Omissions easily happen through carelessness, and 
sometimes have been made by design, but always alter, 
pervert, or destroy the sense, which will be restored by sup- 
plying. The omission of a single letter may happen very 
readily, and from many different causes, and has happened 
very frequently, but is often of great importance. Some- 
times by accident and sometimes designedly, when the intro- 
duction of the vowel-points was thought to render them unne- 
cessary, the vowel letters, in particular, have been improperly 
omitted, especially vav and yodh, on account of their small- 
ness, and the omission has produced improper and even ab- 
surd readings. The improper omission of vav vitiates the 
language, or changes the sense, by altering the persons of 
pronouns and the numbers of verbs, by taking away the 
copulative, and, when it is conversive, turning the future into 
the past, by suppressing the possessive pronoun. The im- 
proper omission of yodh, which has been very frequent, per- 
verts the syntax or the sense, by turning plural into singular 
nouns, by changing the persons of verbs, bf altering the 
future into the past, by suppressing the affixed pronoun. 

Omissions of entire words are very frequent, and always 
introduce obscurity, absurdity, or a difference in sense. 

There have sometimes happened omissions of several tvords 






48 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

together, or of whole sentences, which in a variety of ways 
mutilate or vitiate the sense. 

2. Additions and interpolations have often been made in 
transcribing the Scriptures, and perplex the sense, which will 
be cleared by removing them. The interpolation or addition 
of letters has been common among transcribers, but generally 
destroys or alters the sense. 

The arbitrary and improper insertion of vav changes the 
personal pronouns, turns singulars into plurals, and gives su- 
perfluous conjunctions. The interpolation of yodh has in 
very many instances turned singular nouns into plurals, the 
second persons of verbs into the first, the past into the future, 
and gives a suffix pronoun where there should be none, and, 
in all these cases, introduces great impropriety or perversion 
of the sense. There have been interpolations of words from 
many causes, and particularly from taking marginal glosses 
into the text, which disturb or destroy the sense. Several 
words or whole sentences have been interpolated, to the 
great disturbance of the sense. 

3. Other false readings are produced by transposition, and 
often create difficulties which can be removed only by cor- 
recting them. The transposition of letters in a word often 
changes its sense, or deprives it of all meaning, and, in 
proper names, occasions an appearance of contradiction. 
There are transpositions of words which produce confusion, 
obscurity, or absurdity. There are likewise transpositions of 
whole sentences, or periods, which occasion difficulties of va- 
rious kinds. 

4. Finally, there are many false readings, productive of 
difficulty or error, which consist in change or alteration. 
Not only similar letters, but others also have been confounded 
and interchanged by transcribers, and important alterations 
in the sense have thence arisen. Transcribers have often 
made a false reading by putting one word instead of another. 
There have sometimes been substitutions of whole sentences 
in place of others totally different. 



BIBLICAL CRITICISM. 49 



CHAPTER V. 

RULES OF JUDGING CONCERNING VARIOUS 
READINGS. 

The evidences by which, various readings may be examined 
are of two kinds — external and internal — the former arising 
from the authority of manuscripts, versions, and quotations ; 
the latter from the nature of the languages, the sense and 
connexion, and the known occasions of false readings. Par- 
allel cases partake of the nature of both. 

When the evidences of both kinds concur in favour of a 
reading, there can be no doubt that it is the genuine reading, 
and therefore we have full assurance of the genuineness of 
the great bulk of the Scriptures as contained in all the com- 
mon editions. 

When the evidence for and against a reading is divided, 
the determination must be made according to the circum- 
stances of each particular case. 

If the external evidence stands on the one side, and the 
internal on the other, the former ought in general to deter- 
mine the question, for it is the most direct. 

But the internal evidence may, notwithstanding, be so 
strong as to overbalance a great degree of external evidence, 
particularly where the reading supported by the latter is 
palpably false, or where the introduction and prevalence of it 
can be easily accounted for without supposing it genuine, as 
in copies plainly framed in conformity to the Masora. 

Often both the external and internal evidence is partly for 
one reading and partly for another, and they are divided 
with so great varieties of circumstances that no rules of de- 
ciding, strictly universal, can be laid down. 

But if we distinguish various readings into four classes — 
certainly genuine, probable, doubtful and false — it may be 

3 



50 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

possible to determine with sufficient precision the circum- 
stances which entitle a reading to be placed in one or another 
of these classes. 

1. There are readings certainly genuine, and there are 
even different degrees of evidence which may ascertain them 
to be such, and all such ought to be adopted without hesitation. 

Readings are certainly right, and that in the very highest 
sense, if at all consistent with the existence of any various read- 
ing, which are supported by several of the most ancient, or 
the majority of manuscripts — by all or most of the ancient 
versions — by quotations — by parallel places, if there be any, 
and by the sense; though these readings be not found in the 
common editions, nor perhaps in any printed edition. 

Again, readings are certainly right which are supported 
by a few ancient manuscripts, in conjunction with the ancient 
versions, quotations, parallel places, and the sense, though 
they are not found in most manuscripts nor in the printed 
editions, especially when the rejection of them in these latter 
can be easily accounted for. 

Readings in the Pentateuch, supported by the Samaritan 
copy, a few Hebrew manuscripts, the ancient versions, par- 
allel places, and the sense, are certainly right, though they 
are not found in the generality of Hebrew manuscripts nor 
editions. 

Readings in the Pentateuch, supported by the Samaritan, 
ancient versions, parallel places, and the sense, are certainly 
right, though they are not found in any Hebrew manuscripts 
now extant. 

Ancient manuscripts, supported by some of the ancient 
versions and the sense, render a reading certainly right, 
though it is not found in the more modern. 

Again, ancient manuscripts, supported by parallel passages 
and the sense, may show a reading to be certainly right. 

The concurrence of the most ancient, or of a great number 
of manuscripts, along with countenance from the sense, is 
sufficient to show a reading to be certainly right. 



BIBLICAL CRITICISM. 51 

The concurrence of the ancient versions is sufficient to es- 
tablish a reading as certainly right when the sense or a par- 
allel place shows both the propriety of that reading and the 
corruption of what is found in the copies of the original. 

In a text evidently corrupted a parallel place may suggest 
a reading certainly genuine. 

Eeadings certainly genuine ought to be restored to the 
text of the printed editions, though hitherto admitted into 
none of them, that they may henceforth be rendered as cor- 
rect as possible ; they ought likewise to be adopted in all 
versions of Scripture ; and till this is done they ought to be 
followed in explaining it. 

2. There are various readings probably genuine, when the 
evidence preponderates, but it is not absolutely decisive in 
their favour ; of which kind — as criticism is not always sus- 
ceptible of certainty — are far the greatest part of various 
readings, and the degrees of probability being almost infinite, 
according to the numberless minute alterations of circum- 
stances, down from certainty to perfect doubtfulness, it is 
impossible to enumerate fully all the cases which fall under 
this head ; but the most general cases may be distinguished. 

Of two readings, neither of which is unsuitable to the 
sense, either of which may have naturally arisen from the 
other, and both of which are supported by manuscripts, ver- 
sions, and quotations, the one will be more probable than the 
other in proportion to the preponderance of the evidence 
which supports it, and that preponderance admits a great 
variety of degrees. 

Of two readings equally or almost equally supported by 
external evidence, that is probable which best suits the sense, 
or the nature of the language, or which could not so readily 
as the other have been written by mistake. 

The sense and other external evidences may even render 
the reading of a few manuscripts probable, in opposition to 
that of the greater number, and of versions and quotations. 

The Samaritan Pentateuch alone may render a reading 



52 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

in the books of Moses highly probable, if it be supported by 
the sense, connexion, or parallel places, in opposition to an- 
other found in manuscripts and versions, but unsuitable to 
these internal circumstances. 

One or a few ancient versions may render a reading prob- 
able when it is strongly supported by the sense, connexion, 
or parallel places, in opposition to one which suits not these, 
though found in other versions and in manuscripts. 

The concurrence of all or most of the ancient versions in 
a reading not found in manuscripts now extant, renders it 
probable, if it be agreeable to the sense, though not abso- 
lutely necessary to it. 

Conjectural readings, strongly supported by the sense, the 
connexion, the nature of the language, or similar texts, may 
sometimes have probability, especially when it can be shown 
that they would easily have given occasion to the present 
reading ; and readings first suggested merely by conjecture 
have in several cases been afterwards found to be actually in 
manuscripts. 

Probable readings may have so high a degree of evidence 
as justly entitles them to be inserted into the text in place of 
the received readings much less probable. Such as have 
not considerably higher probability than the common ones 
should only be put on the margin ; but they and all others 
ought to be weighed with impartiality. 

3. Eeadings are doubtful when the evidence for and 
against them is so equally balanced that it is difficult to de- 
termine which of them preponderates. 

When manuscripts, versions, and other authorities, are 
equally or almost equally divided between readings which 
all suit the sense and connexion, it is difficult to determine 
which of them should be preferred. 

The sense, and other internal evidences, may plead so 
strongly for one reading, and the authority of manuscripts 
and versions so strongly for another, as to render it doubtful 
which ought to be preferred. 



BIBLICAL CRITICISM. 53 

Both the external and the internal evidence may be so 
much divided between two readings as to render it doubtful 
which of them demands the preference. 

There are passages, especially in the Old Testament, where 
the fewness of independent manuscripts or their discordance, 
the obscurity or the variations of the versions, or other de- 
fects of evidence for any one reading, render it very doubtful 
what is the genuine reading, and leave room for different 
conjectures. 

ISTo doubtful readings should be taken into the text in 
place of what is already there ; for no alteration ought to be 
made in the received copies without positive reason, and such 
doubtful readings as are already in the text should be marked 
as such, and the others put on the margin ; but every person 
is at liberty to use his own judgment in choosing which he 
pleases. 

4. There are readings which are obviously wrong, and of 
this kind are far the greatest part of the variations from the 
received copies ; but to it belong, likewise, several which 
have, by the injudiciousness, the inattention, or the prejudices 
of transcribers and editors, been admitted into these, and 
such readings are certainly wrong. 

All readings are certainly wrong which stand in opposition 
to the several classes of readings certainly genuine, of which 
many examples might be given. Some of these have been 
received, though they bear plain marks of corruption, as im- 
plying barbarism, inconsistency, &c. 

Readings which imply barbarism, solecism, or absurdity, 
may be pronounced certainly wrong, though we know of no 
reading certainly right to be substituted in their place. 

All readings are probably wrong which stand in opposition 
to such as are probably genuine, and these, too, have been 
already exemplified in many instances. 

Readings which imply considerable irregularity or impro- 
priety are probably false, though it be not clear what reading 
should be adopted instead of them. 



54 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 






Readings certainly or very probably false ought to be ex- 
punged from the editions of the Scriptures, and departed 
from in versions of them, however long and generally they 
have usurped a place there, as being manifest corruptions, 
which impair the purity of the sacred books. 

Among texts the true reading of which is controverted, 
the most remarkable, in several respects, is 1 John v, 7, 8, 
where the words ev tw ovpavti, 6 Trarrjp, 6 hoyog, not to 
dytov TTvevfjia, aal ovtol ol rpelg ev eloc nai rpetg elotv 
fiaprvpovvreg ev r^j y%j, are by some held to be genuine, 
and by others to be spurious ; and all the kinds of evidence, 
both external and internal, having been urged on both sides, 
it is only by a fair comparison of them that it can be deter- 
mined in which of the four classes this reading ought to be 
placed. 



f art ®#r&. 

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 



CHAPTER I. 

INTERPRETATION IN GENERAL. 

Biblical exegesis relates to the interpretation of the Scrip- 
tures, and may be defined that science which teaches the 
student to find not only the meaning of an author, but en- 
ables him to explain it to others. Some have made a dis- 
tinction between hermeneutics and exegesis, making the former 
to consist in the theory or science of interpretation, while the 
latter relates to its practical application. The etymology of 
the words would seem to favour this idea, inasmuch as epfirj- 
vevd) signifies to interpret, and egrjyeofiat to lead out or 
teach. The importance of both to him whose business it is 
to explain the sacred text, will be readily conceded by all 
who have correct views on this subject. 

The interpretation of the sacred books is the most import- 
ant and the most difficult task of the theologian. This 
will appear from the very nature of the work, from the expe- 
rience of all who are engaged in it, and from the common con- 
sent of all periods. All correct knowledge and judicious 
defence of divine truth must originate from a right under- 
standing and accurate interpretation of the Scriptures. The 
purity of the Christian religion has shone brighter or been ob- 
scured as the study of interpretation has flourished or decayed. 
Christian doctrines are preserved only in written records, 
and the interpretation of these is essential to a knowledge 
of what those doctrines are, and without this knowledge we 
can neither maintain their purity nor defend their principles. 



56 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

The science of interpretation requires patient and diligent 
research and the exercise of a sound discriminating judg- 
ment ; all these are necessary in enabling one to conduct an 
exegetical inquiry to a successful issue. The difficulties con- 
nected with this subject vanish as the student becomes fa- 
miliar with the peculiar dialect, manners, customs, education, 
style, modes of thought and expression, location, climate, 
government, &c, of the authors. This only will enable the 
student to attach to an author's language the same meaning 
which the author himself attached to it, and by this he will 
be enabled to teach this meaning to others. "We should 
come to the work of the interpretation of a writer with a 
mind unprejudiced and clear, and, having examined the 
grammatical construction and idiom of the language he uses, 
we should next examine the context and design. His mean- 
ing may be further illustrated by history, chronology, an- 
tiquities, <fec. 

Exegesis, considered as the science of finding the true 
sense of words, consists of two parts. The first comprises 
general principles in respect to the meaning of words, and 
the various kinds of words. On these principles the rules of 
interpretation, and the reasons of them, are grounded. 

The second consists of rules which are to guide us in in- 
vestigating the sense of an author's words. 



CHAPTER II. 

MEANING OF WORDS. 

Every word must have some meaning. To every word in 
the Scriptures there is unquestionably assigned some meaning 
or sense — some idea or notion of a thing ; otherwise words 
would be useless, and have no more signification than the 
inarticulate sounds of animals. 

The literal sense of words is that which is first presented 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. O? 

to the mind as soon as the sound is heard. It is the sense 
of the letter. It is the primitive or original sense. 

Words considered simply as sounds have no meaning, for 
they are not the natural and necessary signs of things, but 
conventional ones. Usage or custom has constituted a con- 
nexion between words and ideas. The connexion between 
words and ideas is now rendered necessary by usage, what- 
ever may have been the case at first. This does not mean, 
however, that a word may only have one meaning, for usage 
contradicts this. We must not, in interpreting or using a 
word, affix to it an arbitrary sense. A word cannot have a 
double sense at the same time and in the same passage or 
expression. An arbitrary sense can never, with propriety, 
be substituted for a real one. 

Although a word can have but one meaning at the same 
time and in the same place, usage, which is the law of lan- 
guage, has gradually assigned many meanings to the same 
word, lest words should be indefinitely multiplied, and the 
difficulty of learning a language become too great. The 
question, then, for an interpreter is simply this : Which one of 
the significations attached to the words is connected with its 
use in any particular instance ? 

The meaning of a word in each case can be found from 
the general manner of speaking — i. e., common usage, and 
the words of the context. The primary meaning is attached 
to the word unless the context or design requires another. 

The doubtful meaning of words arises from various causes. 
1. From the fault of writers. 2. From neglect in the con- 
struction and necessary connexion of words, care not having 
been taken to guard the reader against uncertainty, and to 
afford him the best means for finding the true sense. 
3. From the manner in which common usage often forms 
language, which, not being guided by the philosophy of 
language, is frequently deficient in regard to accuracy. 

From what has been said, we see the ground of all the 
certainty which attends the interpretation of language : for 



58 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

there can be no certainty at all in the interpretation of any 
passage unless a kind of necessity compel us to give a par- 
ticular sense to a word, which sense must be one ; and unless 
there are special reasons for a tropical or figurative meaning, 
it must be the literal sense. A principle of interpretation 
which allows many meanings to a word at the same time 
and in the same place, must introduce very great uncertainty 
into exegesis, than which nothing can be more pernicious. 

The idea that the words of Scripture must be taken in 
every sense at the same time and place, gives a license to 
the introduction of allegory, prophecy, and mystery into 
every part of the Bible. The Rabbinic maxim is : " On every 
point of the Scripture hang suspended mountains of sense." 
The Talmud says : " God so gave the law to Moses that a 
thing can be shown to be clean and unclean in forty-nine 
different ways." A modern commentator maintains that all 
the possible meanings of a word in the Scripture are to be 
united. 

The sense of words properly considered is not allegorical. 
Allegory is rather an accommodation of the sense of words, 
or an accommodation of things to the illustration of some 
doctrine. Moderately used and well adapted it may be of 
service, but in the hands of the injudicious and unskilful it 
may degenerate into ridiculous trifling. 

Properly speaking, there is no typical sense of words. 
Types are not words but things, which God has designated 
as signs of future events. The explanation of them which 
the Holy Spirit himself has given makes them intelligible. 
Beyond his instructions we should be careful never to 
go. The Old Testament is to be no further regarded as 
typical than the New Testament makes it so, as that is 
the key which alone can discover to us what is typical in 
the Old Testament. A word may be tropical and yet not 
allegorical or mystical. 

The sense of words, as we have already shown, depends 
upon the usus loquendi, or common usage. If we understand 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 59 

the usage, then, of course, we understand the sense of the 
words. The way to determine the usus loquendi is by taking 
into account the religion, sect, education, common life, civil 
affairs, &c, of all which have an influence on an author's 
language, and characterize it. The same word is employed 
in one sense respecting the ordinary things of life — in another 
respecting the things of religion — in another still in the 
schools of philosophy ; and even these are not all alike in 
the use of words. To these causes, which operate upon the 
usus loquendi, must be added the style of the writer. 

Those who make one sense the grammatical and another 
the logical, do not comprehend the true meaning of gram- 
matical sense. Interpreters now speak of the grammatico- 
historical sense, and exegesis founded on the nature of lan- 
guage is called grammatico-historicaL The grammatical 
sense is the only true one. If this were not the case words 
would have as many kinds of senses as objects are multifari- 
ous. A grammatical sense may be either literal or tropical. 

The principles of interpretation are common to sacred and 
profane writings ; hence the Scriptures are to be investigated 
by the same rules as other books. The Scriptures are a 
revelation to men, and hence they are to be read and under- 
stood by men. If the same laws of language are not ob- 
served in reading this revelation as are common to men, then 
they have no guide to the right understanding of the Scrip- 
tures, and an interpreter needs inspiration as much as the 
original writer, and the Scriptures would be no revelation at 
all except to those who were inspired. But God has spoken 
in the language of men, and he has spoken by men for 
men. 

The interpreter is not to be guided in his work by the 
analogy of faith. Things and the analogy of faith, as it is 
called, assist an interpreter so far that when words are am- 
biguous, either from variety, structure, signification, or any 
other cause, they may help us determine the meaning. 
With many the analogy of faith is all the rule of interpre- 



60 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

tation they have ; and this, instead of being a Scriptural 
analogy, is nothing more nor less than a sectarian analogy. 
The doctrines of the Bible are cast into this sectarian mould, 
be it the decrees of the Council of Trent, the articles of the 
Church of England, or the Say brook platform, or any other 
of the many sectarian standards ; and if the literal or tropi- 
cal sense agree not with these, they must be tortured into a 
meaning correspondent thereto. With such, vox ecclesl® 
est vox Dei, and not the voice of the living oracles. Our 
present standard English version of the Bible, in some points, 
bears lamentable evidence of this fact; and every commen- 
tary, from the earliest period, is testimony to the fact. Some 
commentators may have been less trammelled and more in- 
dependent than others, but all are more or less tinctured with 
the peculiarities of the standard of doctrine which they have 
embraced. Let the Bible speak out unfettered and free, ac- 
cording to the strict usus loquendi, and let us follow its teach- 
ings wherever they lead, according to their plain, obvious, 
grammatico-historical sense. Vox Dei — et non vox ecclesice — 
should, as all Protestant Christians concede, be the only rule 
of faith and practice. It is right and proper that we should 
be governed, in our searches after the true meaning of inspi- 
ration, by Scriptural analogy, for inspiration then becomes 
its own interpreter ; but then it is equally important that we 
be certain in regard to that which is analogous. 

The sense of Scripture is not arbitrary. The method of 
ascertaining the true meaning of words is just the same as 
that used in explaining or interpreting other books. We are 
to be governed by the laws deduced from the nature of 
language. 

No doctrine of the Scripture contradicts reason — i. e., there 
is nothing contained in the Bible, when properly interpreted, 
that is unreasonable. The meaning which, according to 
grammatical principles, should be assigned to any word of 
Scripture is not to be rejected on account of reasons drawn 
from other things, or from previously-conceived opinions ; for 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 61 

in this way interpretation would become uncertain. In books 
merely human, if reason and the nature of the subject are 
repugnant to the apparent sense of the words, we conclude 
there must have been either a fault in the writer or an error 
in the copyist. In the Scriptures, if any sentiment does not 
agree with our opinions, the weakness of human reason and 
its finite nature must be taken into the account, as many 
things may be in strict accordance with reason, though they 
may be far above it. It is remarkable that in this respect 
more reverence is sometimes paid to mere human produc- 
tions than to the sacred books. In ancient authors, when 
any difficulty occurs, correction or conciliation is sought for, 
as if they must be rendered faultless. Multitudes of passa- 
ges in sacred writ, which have been given up as unreason- 
able, have subsequently been elucidated by a superior criti- 
cism. Time and patient investigation will make all the dark 
passages of the Bible plain and satisfactory to all intelligent 
Christians. 

In comparing reasons for the exegesis of particular passa- 
ges, greater weight should oe attributed to grammatical than 
doctrinal ones. A thing may be altogether true in doctrine 
which yet is not taught by some particular passage. Books 
of theology exhibit many doctrinal interpretations, consen- 
taneous, indeed, with Christian principles, but not deduced 
from the words interpreted — doctrinally true, but not gram- 
matically. 

Real contradiction does not exist in the Scriptures. As 
the books of Scripture were written by men divinely inspired, 
it is evident there can be no real contradiction in them. God 
is certainly capable of seeing what is consistent and incon- 
sistent as well as what is contradictory, and when he speaks 
he cannot forget what was said on former occasions. If 
apparent contradictions occur, a proper method of conciliation 
is to be pointed out which will satisfactorily remove all the 
difficulty. 



62 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 



CHAPTER III. 

KINDS OF WORDS, AND THEIR VARIOUS USES. 

Words are 'proper and also tropical. The first important 
division or distinction of words, in regard to their meaning, 
is into proper and tropical — i. e., literal and figurative, or, pri- 
mary and secondary. 

A proper word is a definite name given to a certain thing, 
and as such may be explained by adverting to the proper 
names of persons. 

A tropical word is one used out of its proper or original 
sense. For instance, we have rosy face, snoioy skin. Here 
rosy and snowy cannot be predicated of skin literally and 
properly. The names trope and tropical come from the 
Greek rporrog. Tropes arise, 1. From similitude, real or 
supposed ; for example, the vine creeps. This is called met- 
aphor. 2. From conjunction, which is either physical or 
intellectual — i. e., supposed, believed. Physical or real, where 
a part of a thing is put to signify the whole, or the container 
for the thing contained ; as, for instance, to offer the cup, is to 
offer what is contained in it. The conjunction is intellectual 
or supposed when the cause is put for the effect, and vice 
versa; for example, blushing for modesty — the sign for the 
thing signified, or the subject for the attribute. From con- 
junction arises that species of trope called metonymy. 

Originally words were undoubtedly used in their proper or 
literal sense, because they were invented to indicate things, 
and by these things they might be easily explained, without 
any ambiguity. A small number of words sufficed at an 
early period, because there were few objects about which 
speech could be employed. In process of time, objects being 
multiplied, there arose a necessity for using words in various 
senses. Men began to speak concerning those things which 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 63 

had hitherto been neglected, and, of course, to form ideas of 
them in their minds, or to describe them in words. New 
objects, also, were invented or discovered, to describe which 
words became necessary. To serve this necessity men re- 
sorted to two different expedients. Either new words were 
coined, or old ones were applied to new objects. In those 
languages that were spoken by an ingenious people devoted 
to science, or in those which by nature or art were flexible 
and fitted for the coining of new words, new ones were most 
usually coined. This usage, however, was not without ex- 
ceptions, for had new words been coined on every occasion 
the number of them would have been multiplied without 
end. In languages of a character differing from that just 
mentioned, there was a greater necessity of applying the 
same word to the designation of several things. 

Tropical words sometimes become proper ones. The 
primitive or proper sense often becomes obsolete, and ceases 
for a long period to be used. In this case the secondary 
sense, which originally would have been the tropical one, 
becomes the proper one. This applies especially to the 
names of things. Hence there are many words which at 
present never have their original and proper sense, such as 
etymology would assign them, but only the secondary sense, 
which may in such cases be called the proper or literal 
sense — such, for instance, in English, as tragedy, comedy, vil- 
lain, pagan, knave, &c. 

Usage sometimes converts tropical words into proper ones. 
The tropical sense has also become so common by usage 
that it is better understood than the original sense. In this 
case, too, we call the sense proper, although strictly and 
technically speaking one might insist on its being called trop- 
ical. If one should by his last will give a library to another, 
we should not call the use of library tropical, although 
strictly speaking it is so, for library originally meant the 
shelves or places where books are deposited. Tropical names 
become proper by transfer, when they are transferred to 



64 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 



things destitute of them : as, for instance, when we predicate 
luxuriousness of a crop ; the words perception and liberty, 
when predicated of the human mind. Tropes are used by 
writers for the sake of variety in expression, and also to pre- 
vent tautology ; hence Heaven is used for God, sleep for death, 
threshold for house, uncircumcision for Gentiles. Tropical 
words are used for ornament, by poets and orators, to give 
elegance to their style. Those who possess great fervour of 
imagination and vividness of conception, more frequently use 
tropes, even bold ones, and, as it often seems to others, 
harsh ones. Tropes, therefore, must not be interpreted ety- 
mologically. 

Tropes used from necessity differ from those used for variety 
or ornament. In the first case a thing has a definite name 
by which it is called, and in the second case the trope is used 
for pleasure or ornament. The former is grammatical — the 
latter is rhetorical. The meaning of all words, tropical and 
proper, is to be deduced from the design of those who em- 
ployed them. 

From the custom of using tropical language, synonymous 
words originate. The interpreter should not seek for any 
definite distinction between synonymes, when they are intro- 
duced for the sake of variety, or where usage conjoins two 
words, or where they are used for the sake of ornament, or 
where excited feeling produces a repetition of the same idea, 
while different words are employed, or where it is the habit 
of an author to employ synonymes. 

Emphasis. 

In the use of language cases arise where the ordinary 
signification of a word receives accession or augmentation. 
This may be effected in two ways, the first of which consists 
in the use of a word in an honorary or in a degrading sense. 
For example, Ev<\>r\\iia and 6va<^r\\iia — or, words of good or 
evil import. The second class of words are those which re- 






BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 65 

ceive augmentation in their extent or force of meaning. 
These constitute what may with propriety be called emphatic 
words. Emphasis, then, may be defined, an accession to the 
ordinary signification of a word, either as to the extent or 
force of its meaning. The word comes from kfjxjxiiveiv, 
which signifies to show or make conspicuous. It is to lan- 
guage what a nod or a sign is to looks. What action is to 
the orator, emphasis is to the writer. 

No word is of itself emphatic. Each word has a certain 
power, and designates a definite idea of a thing, either small 
or great, in which there is no emphasis. It is not because 
a word designates anything which is very great or very 
small that it is emphatical. If this were the case, then 
such words as God, the world, the sun, would be always 
emphatical. 

Emphasis is either occasional or constant. We call it 
occasional when it is connected with w r ords in some particular 
place, or at a certain time. From the animated feelings of 
the speaker, or from the importance of the subject, a word 
is chosen to express more than its ordinary import. Constant 
emphasis is that which usage makes invariably so, by em- 
ploying a word continually in an emphatic rather than in 
the ordinary sense. But this is a departure from the ordi- 
nary definition. 

Antithesis. 

Where antithesis exists, if the sense of one part can 
be found, the other may be easily known. As ideas are 
often contradistinguished from each other, so the language 
corresponds. When ideas are repugnant to each other, if you 
understand the one, of course you must understand the 
other, which is opposite — for what one asserts the other 
denies. So in antithetic language, whether the subject or 
predicate of a sentence, the rule is obvious that the interpre- 
tation of the one part must be directed by that of the other, 
which is understood either from the usus loquendi, or, where 






66 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

this is various, from the context. For example, when multi 
and pauci occur in the same sentence, and it is evident that 
multi means a//, it is of course evident that pauci cannot 
have its ordinary sense, non omnes, without limiting the idea 
to feloness of number. Of a like kind are odpi; and irvevfia, 
ygdiijia and Trvevfia, in which the interpretation of the one 
is to be accommodated to that of the other. 



Abstract and Concrete Words, 

Words are distributed into abstract and concrete. All 
languages, specially ancient ones, often use abstract terms for 
concrete ones. Abstract words are names of qualities or 
attributes. Concrete words are names of things or subjects. 
For example, divinity is an abstract word, meaning the 
quality of divine nature ; God is a concrete term, meaning 
the divine agent or being. The former is, by usage, often 
put for the latter. The use of abstract words for concrete 
arose from necessity. Those languages which have but a few 
concrete terms necessarily employ abstract ones ; for example, 
the Hebrew and its cognate dialects, in which abstracts are 
often used in the place of concretes. This substitution also 
arose from a desire to render the subject spoken of more 
prominent, and also to give an elevation and grandeur to 
the style. 



CHAPTER IV. 
RULES OF INTERPRETATION. 

These rules define the mode by which we investigate rightly 
and explain clearly the sense of words in any particular 
author. They not only serve to assist in finding the mean- 
ing of words, but also in judging whether any particular 
sense put upon words be true or false. By them we may 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 67 

also be assisted to understand why a particular sense is erro- 
neous, as well as why the true sense cannot be discovered. 
The sense of words depends on the usus loquendi. The usus 
loquendi, considered at large, has respect to a language gen- 
erally: but, specially considered, it has respect to the lan- 
guage of some particular writer. To the common usage of 
words almost every writer adds something that is peculiar to 
himself, whence arise the idioms of particular writers. 

Usus LoquendL 

By the usus loquendi is meant the sense which usage at- 
taches to the words of any language. To find the sense of 
words in a dead language the same means precisely are to 
be employed w^hich are used in finding the sense of words 
in a living language. The meaning of a word must always 
be a simple matter of fact To find out that meaning re- 
course must always be had to appropriate and adequate 
testimony. This testimony is direct or indirect. Direct tes- 
timony is derived, first, from the writers to w r hom the language 
investigated was vernacular — either the same authors whom 
we interpret, or from their contemporaries. Secondly, from 
those who, though foreigners, had learned the language in 
question. Thirdly, from scholiasts, glossographers, and ver- 
sions made while the language was spoken, and by those 
who were acquainted with it. Thus, the w T ritings of Marcus 
Antonius, a Eoman emperor, and of Philo and Josephus, 
who were Jews, may be used to illustrate the meaning of 
Greek words, because, although foreigners, they well under- 
stood the Greek language. 

The testimony of contemporary writers may be drawn from 
three sources. First, from the definition of words. In re- 
gard to these nothing more is necessary than to take good 
care that the definition be well understood, and to consider 
how much weight the character of the writer who defines 
may properly give to it. Second, from examples and the 
nature of the subject. In regard to these it may be said 



68 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

that a good understanding and considerable practice is 
necessary to enable one to judge well and make proper dis- 
tinctions. By examples is meant that the writer who uses 
a particular word, although he does not directly define it, yet 
gives, in some one or more passages, an example of what it 
means, by exhibiting its qualities or showing the operation 
of it. Thus Paul uses the words OTOi%zia rov koo\lov at 
first without an explanation, but gives an example of the 
meaning of them in Galatians iv, 9. Thus mang is illus- 
trated by examples in Hebrews xi, and so of many other 
words. The nature of the subject helps in many instances 
to define which meaning the writer attaches to it in any 
particular passage. For example, %«(?££* ^ s divine benevo- 
lence, pardon of sin, temporal blessings. The sense is to be 
determined by the nature of the subject in the passage. 
Third, from the comparison of parallel passages. Parallelism 
is verbal and real. The verbal occurs where a word is 
doubtful, from the fact that neither the subject nor the con- 
text affords matter of illustration, and this same word or its 
synonym e is repeated in a similar passage with those attri- 
butes by which it may be defined, or with some plain ad- 
junct or intelligible comment. The sense of many words is 
so plain that investigation by parallelism is unnecessary. 
Comparison is necessary in the following instances: 1. In 
the illustration of words which belong to the Hellenistic or 
Hebrew-Greek idiom. For example, k<po/3ovvTo ndvreg is 
often said when the event to which it relates is some special 
favour. The language here may be compared with the syno- 
nymes Oavfidaac and Qa\ifir\oai, by which it appears that 
k(j)of3ovvTO in such cases means admiration, astonishment. 

2. Words should be compared which have a kind 
of technical religious use. For example, \ivoTf\giov. 
Compare Colossians i, 27 ; Ephesians hi, 4, 5. So 
maris, ducatoovvr], fierdvova, ftacvr), tcrioig, et cetera. 

3. Words of unfrequent occurrence. 4. Words which are 
ambiguous; for words which are so in one place are fre- 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 69 

quently plain and easy to be understood in another, from 
the connexion in which they stand. For example, Christ is 
frequently called a stone of stumbling In 1 Peter ii, 8, those 
who stumble are said aixeidelv r<£> Aoyoj, to reject, disbelieve, 
or disobey the gospel of Christ. Again, 2 Corinthians i, 21, 
XQioa<; rjfiag Qeog: 1 John ii, 20, ^pZcr^a is said to be 
instruction in the truth. Parallelisms appropriately so called 
are of this nature, the one often serving to explain the other. 
These are very numerous in the Old Testament, and con- 
siderably so in the New. Compare Matthew i, 20, with 
Luke i, 35. Real parallelism occurs when there is a par- 
allelism of object or sentiment, although the words are not 
the same ; or it occurs when the same object or sentiment is 
expressed in other words more clearly or copiously. The 
real parallelism may have respect to a fact or a doctrine 
related or taught in different passages, and the student can 
never feel too deeply the importance of a thorough compari- 
son of all those parts of Scripture which pertain to the same 
subject. He should read parallel passages continuously and 
frequently, that he may be able readily to trace the resem- 
blances between them. When apposite passages are com- 
pared, the rules of exegesis require that the obscure passage 
shall be regulated by that which is the most clear and the 
best sustained by the nature of the subject and the adjuncts. 
Parallelisms of fact occur frequently in the Gospels, which, 
in very numerous instances, relate the same facts. So also in 
the books of Samuel and Kings, compared with Chronicles. 

Parallelism of doctrine is where the same principles are 
taught in both passages. To this head of parallelism belong 
repetitions of the same composition. For example, Psalms 
xiv and liii ; Psalms xcvi and 1 Chronicles xvi ; Psalms xviii 
and 2 Samuel xxii ; some of Jude and 2 Epistle of Peter, 
with many other such passages. 

Besides the verbal and real parallelisms, there is another 
which constitutes one of the principal features of Hebrew 
poetry, viz.: a correspondence of two parts of a verse with 



YO MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

each other, so that words answer to words and sentiment to 
sentiment. This runs throughout the books of Job, Psalms, 
Proverbs, Canticles, and most of the Prophets. See Psalms 
i, ii, cxix; Isaiah i, 2-5 ; xl. See also Lukei, 35-46 ; xi, 27, 
and many parts of the Apocalypse, and in almost every 
chapter of the New Testament. 

Similarity of passages should be real in order to be com- 
pared, and not merely verbal. The same idea should be 
presented by both; otherwise real likeness cannot exist be- 
tween them, and one cannot, of course, throw any light 
upon the other. When this point is settled, viz., in regard 
to similarity of idea, which is determined by the context, 
then the interpreter must consider which of the two is the 
most clear and definite, and regulate the exegesis of the 
more obscure passage by that which is the more perspicuous. 

Many parallel passages should be compared. To compare 
one passage only is not sufficient, whether you are endeav- 
ouring to find the usus loquendi by the aid of parallel passa- 
ges, or by testimony derived from the nature of the subject 
and from examples. Specially is this the case if we are in- 
vestigating the sense of words that have a complex or gen- 
eric meaning, made up of various parts. In this case 
comparisons should be made from numerous passages until 
we perceive that what we are seeking is fully and entirely 
discovered. Suppose the word ixiariq occurs in a particular 
passage, where you are doubtful what sense should be applied 
to it. Trior ig is a generic word, having several meanings 
related to each other, but still diverse as species under the 
genus. You wish to determine how many species of mean- 
ing irioTLC; has, and in order to accomplish this many pas- 
sages where it is used must be compared, in order that you 
may know whether all the species are found. This being 
done, you proceed to compare them with the passage under 
investigation, and see which will fit it. In this way all gen- 
eric words must be investigated before the generic idea can 
be determined. 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. *71 

The usus loquendi may be found also by the testimony 
from scholiasts, either given by themselves or cited by them 
from others. Scholia means short notes upon any author, 
either of an exegetical or grammatical nature. On all the 
distinguished ancient Greek authors scholia have been writ- 
ten in more recent times. Many volumes of these scholia 
written upon Homer, Thucydides, Sophocles, Aristophanes, 
and others, are still extant. Many scholia are found on the 
margin of manuscripts, or interlined, or placed at the end of 
the book. 

In a similar way is the testimony of glossographers to be 
estimated. Glossarium is a book or writing comprehending 
yX&ooai. Among the Greeks yXcbaaa meant either an 
idiomatic word peculiar to a certain dialect only, and un- 
known in others, or an obsolete or obscure word. Glossary 
means a book containing explanations of obscure and difficult 
words. It is of course not to be used as a lexicon, because 
it is only a comment upon particular passages. 

The testimony of versions in finding the usus loquendi is 
to be estimated by their antiquity and by the knowledge of 
the original which the translator possessed, and this is to be 
determined by comparing the translation with the original ; 
also the testimony of those writers who have explained to 
their readers words and obscure expressions taken from an- 
other language. Cicero explains many Greek words, and 
Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, many Latin ones, and writers 
who have inserted translations from other languages. 

To qualify an interpreter fully and fairly to enter upon his 
work, he must make himself acquainted with the style of an 
author, the nature of the composition, and the age, circum- 
stances, and idiom of the author. 

First, the style of an author; and this may be known 
from the writer's own testimony, either expressed or implied. 
If an author have a manner of expression wholly sui generis, 
then his own writings are the only legitimate source of infor- 
mation in respect to his style. It may be known from the 



72 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

customs and principles of the sect to which he belongs, as 
every religious sect has terms used in a sense peculiar to it- 
self. The same language will apply to a philosophical sect. 
Again, the interpreter must have a knowledge of the manners 
and customs of the age to which his author alludes, which 
is to be obtained by consulting those who have given infor- 
mation on these topics ; and, lastly, the interpreter should 
have a general knowledge of writers of the same age. 

Second, the nature of the composition, the age in which 
it was written, <fcc. History is one thing, poetry another, 
oratory another ; and they are to be interpreted accordingly ; 
history as history, and not as an allegory or mythic fiction ; 
poetry as poetry, and not as prose. Particular ages have 
their special characteristics in each of these modes of com- 
position, and a due regard must be had to them. 

The usus loquendi is also to be found by indirect testimony. 
The first and best means under this head is to ascertain the 
scope or design of a writer. The passage to be investigated 
is to be compared with the general tenor of the whole. The 
ground of this rule is that we ought not to suppose a good 
and judicious writer has said what is inconsistent with his 
design. Difficulty may arise here from the fact that several 
interpretations may agree with the scope or design of the 
writer, and only a probability as it regards which is the true 
exegesis may be arrived at. We must insist upon an evi- 
dent and necessary connexion with the scope of the discourse : 
for, 1. Where a meaning plainly contradicts the tenor of a 
discourse, it is to be rejected. 2. When.it violates the prin- 
ciples of parallelism and the conclusions drawn from them as 
to the sense of a passage. 3. A meaning must be rejected 
which gives an unfit and frigid sense. By a frigid sense is 
meant one which' contributes neither to argument, perspicuity, 
nor ornament. A meaning which infringes upon none of 
these negative rules will be found to harmonize with the sub- 
ject of which the author is treating, unless he has violated 
ail the rules of language and reasoning. 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. ^3 

The usus loquendi is always the best evidence which can be 
had of the meaning of a passage ; and nothing can be admitted 
which shall contradict it, where it can be established by ad- 
equate testimony. In a case where doubt arises in regard to 
what meaning the usus loquendi would assign, or at least allow, 
to any word or phrase, the scope of the discourse may be 
resorted to for the sake of obtaining the desired illustration. 

The rule must have recourse to the antecedents and con- 
sequents of a passage — i. e., the context — in order that the 
meaning may be determined. This is done for two reasons. 
1. That we may choose out of several meanings one which 
does not disagree with the usus loquendi; or, 2. That the 
meaning of an uncommon word, not explained by the usus 
loquendi, may be discovered. The evidence of the usus 
loquendi is in very many cases built upon the context, and 
there are few if any rules in the whole science of hermeneu- 
tics of more importance and practical utility than this. 

To discover the meaning of words which are ambiguous 
and obscure, the comparing of subject and attribute, nouns 
and adjectives, words accompanied by other words that 
quality them, which may consist of adverbs or of nouns, 
joined to the word investigated by prepositions, and consti- 
tuting a kind of adverbial periphrasis, or finally of disjunc- 
tives, is of the greatest importance. 

In relation to the comparison of subject with attribute it 
may be remarked that we are to understand as tropical all 
those expressions which ascribe hands, feet, eyes, ears, ascent, 
descent, &c, to God, who is a spirit. By the adverbial 
periphrasis we have an example, nar 9 oipiv aoiaig, which 
serves merely as an adjective qualifying tcplaig, and showing 
that judgment from external appearance only is meant. By 
disjunctives. By disjunctives are meant words placed in 
antithesis. For example, heaven and earth, flesh and spirit. 
The rule for determining the sense in the case is obvious ; 
for whatever meaning one term has, the other must have an 
opposite meaning. 

4 



74 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Assistance in judging of the meaning of words is derived 
from the analogy of languages. Analogy means similitude. 
For example, from the meaning attached to the forms of 
words, their position and connexion, in many cases, we argue 
to establish a similarity of meaning where the phenomena 
are the same in another. This analogy is the foundation of 
all the rules of grammar, and of all that is established and 
intelligible in language. Grammatical analogy is not only 
useful in rinding the usus loquendi, but applicable to some 
doubtful cases. For example, when the kind of meaning 
generally considered is evident, we may judge of the special 
force or power of the word by the aid of grammatical analogy, 
as 1 Peter v, 5, where many critics have attached to eyicofp- 
P&oaoOe an emphatic sense, we must compare the other 
Greek phrases which relate to clothing or investing, and thus 
we shall see that the prepositions nepi, d/^, kv are used in 
composition without any accession of meaning to the verb 
thereby, and consequently that kyfcopL^Gaade is no more 
than evdvcaade. Another analogy is that of Jcindred lan- 
guages, either as derived from one common stock, as Hebrew, 
Syriac, Chaldee, and Arabic, or from one another, as Greek 
and Latin. Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic, are ranked among 
the dialects of the Hebrew, while Greek and Latin are called 
cognate languages. In regard to this, however, there is a 
difference of opinion. General usage makes the Semitic 
languages cognates. This analogy is of use to the interpre- 
ter, not only in assisting him by the aid of one dialect to 
restore roots which have perished in another that is the sub- 
ject of his investigation, and thus opening a way of access 
to the signification of words, but still more useful as a 
means of illustrating and confirming that sense of words 
which the scope of the discourse commends. The fluctuating 
use of words which prevails in all languages gives rise to 
frequent changes in their meaning. There are but few words 
in any language which always retain their radical and pri- 
mary meaning. Etymology often belongs rather to the 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 75 

history of language than to the illustration of its present 
meaning. 

Expressions which convey a similar meaning are to be 
compared, although in respect to etymology they may differ. 
Of this nature are rcerrpafzevog vtto rrjv apapriav com- 
pared with the Latin addictus alicui, and ojg dca irvpog 
compared with ambustus, when the Latin words are used 
tropically. 

The foundation of analogy in all languages consists in the 
fact that men are affected in nearly the same way by objects 
of sense. Though they use language that differs in respect 
to etymology, yet they mean doubtless the same thing when 
describing the same objects. 

The meaning of words in each or any language is not to be 
resolved into the authority of lexicons, but that of good writers. 
Words, phrases, tropes, &c, of any ancient languages, are 
to be judged of by the rules of judging among those who 
wrote that language, and not by those which prevail in 
modern times, and have originated from different habits and 
tastes. Conclusions as to the meaning of words in the same 
or different languages are not to be drawn from fanciful ety- 
mology, similarity, or metathesis of letters, &c. When the 
sense of words can be ascertained in any particular language 
by the ordinary means, other languages, even kindred ones, 
should not be resorted to except for the purpose of increased 
illustration or confirmation. Real similitude should always 
exist where comparison is made. 

We must also resort to the nature of things and the an- 
alogy of the sentiment which the writer is inculcating, that 
we may find the true meaning of his words, and not attribute 
to them more nor less than he did. Every writer spontane- 
ously, or from education, feels that his readers must under- 
stand what he is saying, so that there is no danger of mis- 
apprehension. It happens not unfrequently that on this ac- 
count he uses language which is not altogether accurate, if 
it be judged of by the rules of logical precision. Of this 



76 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

nature are catachresis, hyperbole, "ky pottage* and of those 
phrases which assert generally what is true of only a part, 
or of some particular kind. These and other like modes of 
speech are introduced by common custom into every lan- 
guage, especially the oriental ones. They abound in poetry 
and oratory. Nor is there any particular reason that a writer 
should take special pains to avoid them. It is necessary, 
therefore, in these cases, to have recourse, for the sake of in- 
terpretation, to the nature of things, to innate conceptions, 
common sense, and the plain elements of knowledge. Gram- 
matical anomalies are not only free from fault when predomi- 
nant usage sanctions them, but they become a part of the 
lanuguage, so that one who departs from them may be said 
to write inaccurately. 

° Catachresis is the use of a word so as to attribute to a thing 
what cannot be predicated of it. Example : " Hear, heavens ! 
listen, earth ! Let the floods clap their hands and the hills 
skip." Hyperbole magnifies a thing beyond its real greatness. 
Example : " It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a 
needle, &c." Hypallage is a change of appropriate for inappro- 
priate language. Example : " His mouth and his tongue, aveyxOrj. 

In regard to that usage where a whole is put for a part, and a 
part for a whole, it is by no means unfrequent in the Scriptures. 
How often do we meet with nag or Travrec, when only a large or con- 
siderable number is intended. A reference to the context and an- 
tithesis will determine the exegesis in all such cases. On the other 
hand, a part is often put for a whole. For example, Psalm viii, 
7, 8 ; Romans viii, 38, 39. The apostle does not here mean to say 
that the things which he particularizes are the only things which 
are unable to separate us from the love of Christ. As every 
writer addresses himself to the common sense of his fellow-men, 
common sense must therefore be appealed to in the interpretation 
of parables, allegories, and all kinds of figurative language and 
proverbial expressions. 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 11 

CHAPTER V. 

USUS LOQUENDI OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

The language of the New Testament is the later Greek lan- 
guage, as spoken by foreigners of the Hebrew stock, and 
applied by them to subjects on which it had never been 
employed by native Greek writers. Jews who spoke Greek 
are called, in the New Testament, 'RkXrjv carat, and hence, 
in modern usage, the Greek has been termed Hellenistic. 
The language of the writers is modelled after the Hebrew 
not only in words, phrases, and figures of speech, but in the 
general texture of the language. St. Luke, who is usually 
thought to be the most pure in his style, has innumerable 
Hebraisms. The very beginning of his Gospel, after a short 
preface of pure Greek, immediately goes into the use of the 
Hebrew idiom so exactly that it seems to be translated lit- 
erally from a Hebrew original. 

The New Testament also contains Latinisms, Syriasms, 
Chaldaisms, and JRabbinisms. 

Having ascertained the character of the language of the 
New Testament, the student is prepared to direct his attention 
to the rules for finding out the usus loquendi. The inter- 
preter should be acquainted with the Greek and Hebrew 
idioms, so that he can distinguish between pure Greek and 
that method of writing which is derived from another lan- 
guage. This is necessary in order rightly to interpret either. 
In regard to pure Greek he must study not only the writers 
who have used the popular language, but those of a proxi- 
mate age who have imitated in some degree the Attic diction. 
The basis of acquaintance with the Hebrew Greek must be 
the Septuagint version; from the fact that the origin of speak- 
ing and writing in Greek concerning sacred things took its 
rise from that version. Aquilia's Greek version, made not 
very remote from the apostles, exhibits a similar diction. 



*78 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

In the doctrines of religion the Hebrew idiom is to be 
specially regarded. In speaking of religious matters the 
writers of the New Testament were accustomed to use the 
phraseology of the Hebrew Scriptures. The interpreter will 
be much assisted here by the analogy of doctrine, with which 
he ought to be familiar, lest the words of the New Testament 
should be drawn to a sense alien from that which the authors 
desired to express, and different from the essential points of 
religion. The Hebrew idiom is specially to be regarded in 
respect to the meaning of words and phrases, and the forms 
and tenses of verbs, and also to the number of both nouns 
and verbs. In respect to these things the idiom of the New 
Testament not unfrequently departs from classical Greek, and 
follows the Hebrew. When the Hebrew idiom fails in the 
exposition of a word or passage, then recourse must be had 
to the Syriac, Chaldee, or Rabbinic. 

There are many things in the New Testament which are 
described in a novel way, because the things themselves are 
new. Ancient doctrines are delivered in a language more 
perspicuous, appropriate, and distinctive — the veil of figures 
and allegories being removed. New words were therefore 
necessary in order to describe new things; among which 
words are many that are adapted to designate certain things 
on account of some similitude to them. These words were 
not invented by the apostles, and could not have been, for 
such invention is a thing that belongs to minds trained up 
by literary discipline, and not to unlettered men. Terms of 
this description were suggested by the Holy Spirit, which is 
an argument in favour of the inspiration of the Scriptures. 
Of this nature are such words as datfiovl^eodac, rdprapog, 
avayevvav, and others. If it is asked why the Holy Spirit 
did not dictate classic Greek instead of that which is denom- 
inated Hebrew Greek ? — the answer is that those for whom it 
was mostly written could not have understood it without 
inspiration. 

New words are to be explained by testimony direct and 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 79 

indirect. They cannot be explained from the more ancient 
usus loquendi, but have an interpretation peculiar to them- 
selves. This interpretation depends on the direct testimony 
of the writers, and must be gathered from the collation of 
similar passages. The testimony of the ancient Greek fathers 
is also to be consulted, as their writings may exhibit the 
interpretations of the primitive age of Christianity. 

The ancient glossaries may be of use here, specially that 
of Hesychius, in which are found many things pertaining to 
certain passages of the New Testament that were deduced 
from the most ancient interpreters of it. Others are more or 
less important. 

Glosses in some manuscripts, which have crept into the text 
of the New Testament in place of the true reading, may be used 
to assist the interpreter either to understand the true text or to 
find means for illustrating or confirming the true interpreta- 
tion. Thus, for example, instead of epevvrjaov, in John vii, 5, 
Chrysostom has the reading epurrjaov, and explains it by fidOe 
rovro yap eartv epcjrrjaov. These glosses may have flowed 
from the ancient schools instructed by Origen, although some 
may have proceeded from the Latin commentaries. 
1 When all the above means which have been described 
shall fail, we must then resort to the context and to the well- 
known nature of things themselves. 

Our interpretation must be guided also by the analogy of 
Scripture and Christian doctrine, and nothing must be so 
explained as to contradict that analogy. Analogy of doctrine 
or faith does not consist in the doctrine which is approved 
by any particular sect ; for then it would be various and in- 
constant, and there would be no true standard. Grammati- 
cal analogy is the rule of speaking or form of speech consti- 
tuted by the laws of the language, which is opposed to 
anomaly, or a method of speaking in opposition to usage, or 
varying from it. In like manner the analogy of sacred doc- 
trine or faith consists in the summary of religion and the 
rules plainly taught in the Scriptures ; whence the Latin 



80 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Church called it regula fidei. To this analogy all things are 
to be referred, so that nothing may be discordant with it. 
When this is done the analogy of faith is said to be preserved. 
As to faith and practice, the analogy of Scripture does not 
differ from the analogy of doctrine. Examples of analogy, 
and of judgment agreeably to analogy, may be found in 
Galatians vi, 15, 16; 1 Corinthians xv, 3-11, <fcc. In all 
the departments of learning analogy of such a kind has the 
force of a rule, both in our judgment and interpretation of 
a passage. In a special manner we must betake ourselves 
to analogy in those passages which seem to teach what 
disagrees with that which is plainly taught in other parts of 
the Scriptures, and with common sense, concerning divine and 
human things. 

The student should make himself familiar with the more 
difficult forms of speech in the sacred writers, or those forms 
which differ from the idioms of our own language, and are 
not adapted to express with simplicity and logical accuracy 
principles of any doctrine. For example, many things are 
affirmed simply and without any limitation, which, however, 
are to be understood as having only a particular and partial 
application. Specially is this the case in moral propositions. 
Also, active verbs do not always indicate action, and some- 
times they indicate frequency of action. As there is scarcely 
any form of speech in the sacred writings which is not to be 
found in profane authors, these should be examined. Those 
things in the writings of Paul which appear hard to be un- 
derstood, will not be wondered at by those who compare the 
writings of the apostle with those of Thucydides. Faults in 
transpositions, and want of consistency in construction, which 
at first sight may appear to be incompatible with the dignity 
and sanctity of the Scriptures, will not create alarm. 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 81 

CHAPTER VI. 
TROPICAL LANGUAGE. 

In regard to tropical language the office of an interpreter is 
twofold. In the first place he must rightly distinguish it 
from language not tropical, so as not to mistake the one for 
the other, and so as not to pervert the proper sense of words 
by a tropical interpretation. Secondly, he must rightly in- 
terpret tropes, and give their true sense. It often happens 
that men think they have gained the tropical sense of words 
when they understand only the literal one, and pervert the 
trope by an etymological interpretation. The literal meaning- 
is not to be deserted without evident reason or necessity, and, 
wherever there is a plain and obvious reason for such a de- 
parture, the tropical sense must be adopted. Some apparent 
repugnances may exist, however, in regard to things and 
facts, which must not readily be yielded to in the formation 
of a judgment in regard to a change. The older writers 
regard the phrase proper sense as of the same meaning with 
literal or historic sense, and rightly teach that we should not 
depart from the customary signification of a word without 
a weighty and sufficient reason. In respect to many words, 
however, the tropical sense is the customary or usual one. 

We may generally understand at once whether a word is 
to be taken tropically or not, by simply examining the object 
spoken of, either by the external or internal senses, or by re- 
newing the perception of the object. To judge of figurative 
language in such cases is very easy, because the objects spo- 
ken of are to be examined by our senses, external and inter- 
nal. In the Scriptures, however, doubts have arisen in re- 
gard to the nature of subjects there treated, which are such 
as cannot be subjected to the evidences of the senses. For 
example : The language which respects God and his opera- 
tions, and all that respects the invisible things of a future 

4* - 



82 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

state — heaven and hell, <fcc. One of the things which the 
mind learns very slowly is to detach itself from conceptions 
that arise from material objects and to perceive that in all 
the descriptions of a future state words are of absolute neces- 
sity employed which originally have a literal sense, because 
language affords no other. Even the internal operations of 
our own mind we are obliged for the same reason to describe 
in language that of necessity must be tropically understood. 
It is generally conceded that most of the language employed 
to describe God and his operations is necessarily to be under- 
stood as tropical. So also of the language employed to de- 
scribe the heavenly world ; but what regards the day of 
judgment, or the world of woe, in the estimation of some, 
must be understood as strictly literal. With such the appre- 
hension is that if the language which respects the day of 
judgment or the world of woe is figurative, then the reality 
of them is destroyed. But this is simply ridiculous, inas- 
much as this view would also destroy the reality of the ex- 
istence and operations of God and the heavenly . world. 
Reality lies essentially at the basis of tropical as well as 
literal language. 

Those words are not to be regarded as tropical which have 
lost their original and proper signification, and are used no 
longer in any but a secondary sense. 

Those phrases are tropical the subject and predicate of 
which are heterogeneous, as where corporeal and incorporeal, 
animate and inanimate, rational and irrational, are conjoined; 
and also species of a different genus. For example : The 
fields smile, the stones cry out, the floods clap their hands, 
&c. Things that cannot possibly exist in any particular sub- 
ject cannot be logically predicated of it, for the fundamental 
rules of logic in respect to this are inherent in the mind. 
If then such things appear to be predicated, the phrase must 
be tropically understood. By this rule the language of the 
New Testament should be interpreted which respects the per- 
son of Jesus Christ, to whom divine and human qualities are 






BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 83 

attributed. The latter are attributed to him as a man, the 
former as a divine person. 

In regard to divine things which can only be known by 
revelation, and cannot be examined by the test of our own 
feelings and views, we can judge only from the usus loquendi 
of the sacred writers whether their language is to be under- 
stood literally or tropically. This usage can be known only 
from the comparison of similar passages, which is done in 
various ways. 1. When different words are employed in 
different passages respecting the same thing. For example, 
the phrase to be born of water, John iii, 5, is tropical, for the 
same thing is literally expressed in Mark xvi, 16. So the 
covenant which God made with Abraham is explained in 
Galatians iii, 16, as meaning a promise. 2. When the 
same word is used everywhere respecting the same thing it 
has a proper sense. For example, dvdoramg vekq&v, eyei- 
Qerai GG)fjia, ^orrocslrat, are constantly used in respect to 
that which is to take place at the end of the world, and 
therefore are not tropical. 3. When the same method of 
expression is constantly used respecting divers things which 
are similar, or which have some special connexion, it is to be 
understood literally. 

The context must also be consulted. When the whole 
passage is allegorical we must acknowledge a trope in par- 
ticular parts that are connected with the whole allegory. 
For example, nvp, 1 Corinthians iii, 13, which relates to 
%vXa and x^9 T0V m the context. In like manner the lan- 
guage is to be regarded as tropical when, although the pre- 
ceding context is to be literally understood, there is a mani- 
fest transition to allegory. 

, In regard to interpreting tropical language we may observe 
there are two sources of aid. The one is the subject itself, 
the other the usus loquendi. Interpretation by the aid of 
the subject is easy when the nature of it affords an obvious 
similitude. For example, (poyrcafiog is easily understood as 
used tropically. In regard to the usus loquendi, the general 



84 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

usage of the Hebrew tongue in respect to tropical words 
must be first understood as in words corresponding to £0)77, 
Odvarog, ti\l% doga, &c. ; then Greek usage in general. 
Passages must also be compared in which the same thing is 
expressed by a proper word, or in which such proper word is 
employed in the context, so that the sense is obvious. Here 
too we may use the comparison of words that are conjoined 
and similar, examples of which will hereafter be produced. 

We must not judge of tropes merely from etymology. 
For example, opdorofieiv, in 2 Timothy ii, 1 5, some have in- 
terpreted as implying a distinction between the law and the 
gospel, which is ridiculous ; for Xoyog dXrjdeLag in the con- 
text means the gospel, and the law is not the subject of dis- 
course here. 

For the purpose of adequately understanding what tropi- 
cal language is, substitute proper words for tropical ones. 
It is also useful to make the experiment whether when the 
image presented by the tropical expression is removed from 
the mind any idea still remains in it different from the image 
itself, which can be expressed by a proper word. This ex- 
periment is specially to be made when words designating 
sensible objects are transferred to the expression of intellectual 
ones. For example, Odvarog, £0)77, dLadrjfcrj, &c, in respect 
to which it is easy to be deceived. The context, the nature 
of the subject, and parallel passages, are the most effectual 
means of ascertaining this. 



Allegories, 

The term 'AXXrjyopia is derived from dXXd dyopeverat ; 
that is, a different thing is said from that which is meant. 
It differs from metaphor, which is confined to a word. Alle- 
gory extends to a whole thought, or to several thoughts. It 
may be expressed by pictures, Ezekiel iv, 1 ; by actions, 
Ezekiel iii, iv, v; Luke xxii, 36, or by any significant thing, 

In interpreting allegories the first thing to be done is to 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 85 

ascertain the design, which is readily obtained when it is 
connected with a context explanatory of its design. For the 
most part, however, the design is expressly declared. For 
example, the design of the parable or allegory of the good 
Samaritan is to illustrate the duty and extent of beneficence* 
The next thing is to find out the primary word, or that 
which designates the leading design, and all the other words 
are to be interpreted in conformity to it. 

The design of the exhortation in form of allegory, found 
in 1 Corinthians v, 6, is that the Corinthians should be puri- 
fied from vicious inclinations and the evil practices arising 
therefrom. Zvfirj, therefore, here means vice, and dfyfiog, 
free from vice, or without vice, ''Eogrdfav, consequently, 
is not to celebrate a feast, according to its proper signification, 
for a tropical meaning is required. It means to serve God, 
to worship God, to be a Christian, to be free from vices, and 
worship him in purity. It is altogether incongruous to 
understand one part literally and another tropically, in the 
same allegory, as those do who take rcvpog in 1 Corinthians 
iii, 15 literally, when all the context is to be understood 
tropically. The expression cog did irvpog makes it plain 
that the word is to be figuratively understood. 

To explain allegory we must sometimes resort to history. 
For example, as when the kingdom of God is compared to 
leaven and a mustard-seed. History shows the rise and 
progress of the kingdom of Christ ; from small beginnings it 
is spreading throughout the earth. In the next place, the 
nature of the subject will assist in the interpretation. For 
example : "Ye are the salt of the earth," &c, Matthew v, 13. 
The subject is the instructions to be given by the disciples. 
The primary or leading word {salt) in the allegory means 
instruction, and conveys an idea of the nature and effects 
of that instruction — preservative, conservative. 

Not unlike the method of interpreting allegories is that 
of interpreting parables, which often contain allegory. We 
must guard against urging too far the meaning of all 



86 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

parts of a parabolical narrative, and refer the particular parts 
to the main design, so that all may be accommodated to it. 
Therefore, in Luke xv, 11, &c., we are not to seek for a 
doctrinal meaning in gtoXtj, \log%oc, dafcrvkiog, <fcc. Such 
circumstances are commonly added to complete the form 
of the narration, and to make it a more finished picture of 
what might be supposed to have happened. 

Parable in Greek usage means any composition introduced 
into a discourse. It may be called an example taken from 
things real or fictitious, designed for special and graphical 
illustration. Allegory differs from parable only in the style 
and mode of expression. Take an allegory and express it 
in the historic style, and it is converted into a parable. The 
same rules of exegesis apply to both. 



CHAPTER VII. 

RULES IN REGARD TO EMPHASIS. 

Emphasis should not be deduced from the etymology of a 
word, nor in tropical expressions should we recur to the 
proper sense of the words to deduce emphasis from it, as 
has been done in respect to the word epevvdv. Tropically 
used, this word does not signify to seek with great exertion 
and diligence ; for the Holy Spirit is said epevvdv ra pddrj 
rrjc fteoTTjToc, to whom this emphatic meaning surely will 
not apply. The ancient interpreters used kgevvav in the 
same sense as yiv&ntieiv. In both of the above points 
errors are very frequent. 

Prepositions compounded with Greek words do not make 
any accession or augmentation of signification. For example, 
dvd, drro, ttq6, ovv, ek, irepi, compounded as in dvaarav- 
povv, avavrj'&eiv, ovfifiaprvpelv, Trpoyiv&oreeiv, &c. Many 
are accustomed to build arguments on such imaginary 
emphasis. These prepositions do not always change the 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 87 

meaning of simple words, but are very commonly redun- 
dant. 

Emphasis must not be deduced merely from the plural 
number, supposing that where the plural is put for the sin- 
gular it necessarily denotes emphasis. This is not so, either 
as it regards the Hebrew or Greek. 

Emphasis is not to be attached to an abstract word when 
it is merely used for a concrete one. The true ground of 
using abstract words for concretes is either from necessity or 
for the sake of perspicuity, and not on account of emphasis. 
In the sacred books the necessity of it springs from the 
Hebrew dialect, which often employs abstract words in this 
manner, because it has only a few concrete ones. 

In the sacred books, and especially in the Hebraisms of the 
New Testament, we must not seek for and recognise empha- 
sis merely in the idiom which is so very dissimilar to our 
own. In the oriental languages many things, if translated 
literally, appear hyperbolical which are not so in reality. 
For example, in Lamentations it is said, My trouble is great 
as the sea, which is simply equivalent to the Latin expression, 
mala mea sunt maxima. 

If there is no adequate testimony to show that any word 
has a constant emphasis, we must consult usage. We should 
first inquire whether, in all the passages where the word is 
found, emphasis w^ould be consistent. Next, whether, in the 
same passage, or a similar one, another word may be substi- 
tuted in the room of this, which other contains a special 
designation of intensity. 

If neither of these be the case, but the word in question 
may be commuted for others which are plainly unemphatic ; 
or, in some of the passages where the word occurs, a special 
designation of intensity is made by adding some other word 
for this purpose, then there is no emphasis to be recognised 
in the word in question. For example, some have attached 
emphasis to anoitapadofcia in Romans viii, 19; but in Phil- 
ippians i, 20 it would be inconsistent. There it is used as a 



88 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

synonyme with kXmda, and, in fact, commuted with it in 
verse 22. Nor is emphasis always attached to such phrases 
as %aoav xaipetv, for such phrases are often used when 
another word is added to indicate intensity ; for example, 
Matthew ii, 10. This would be useless if they indicated in- 
tensity themselves. 

The usual or temporary emphasis arising from the affection 
of the speaker may be recognised without difficulty by the 
following mark, viz. : if the ordinary signification of the word 
is far below the manifest intensity of the affection which the 
speaker or writer feels. 

If the usual force of the word or phrase would give a 
frigid meaning, when, on the other hand, an apt one would 
arise if some intensity were given to the word, there is a 
plain necessity of emphasis, which is the best guide for find- 
ing it. So in 1 Corinthians iv, 3, 4, dvaKplvetv is constantly 
emphatic ; meaning either to be tried by the judgment, or to 
take to one's self the right of trying or judging, or to be able 
rightly to judge. If translated simply to judge, a frigid 
sense would be given to it not at all adapted to the context. 
In like manner tt'lotlv, in Colossians i, 4, is used, as the con- 
text shows, to denote the constancy, greatness, or fruitfulness 
of faith. Paul was not under the necessity of knowing by 
report that the Church at Colosse had simply Christian faith, 
inasmuch as he was himself the founder of that Church. 
So in Romans i, 8, that faith must have been special which 
was celebrated throughout the world. Also in Matt, iv, 2, 
enelvaae must imply intensity, from the circumstances of 
the case. 

The usus loquendi must not be neglected ; and whatever 
rules may be devised for finding out and establishing the 
emphasis, the usus loquendi must not be contradicted, nor 
anything admitted implying repugnance thereto. 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 89 

CHAPTER VIII. 

THE AFFECTIONS OF INSPIRED WRITERS. 

That an acquaintance with the doctrine of the affections is 
an essential requisite in the exposition of the Scriptures, may- 
be proved from reason and from the authority of divines. 

It may be proved from reason ; for the affections of love, 
hatred, desire, hope, fear, joy, sorrow, &c, are frequently to 
be met with in Holy Writ. It is evident, therefore, that, 
were we ignorant of these affections, we should be inadequate 
to the exposition of no inconsiderable part of the sacred 
writings. 

When no affections are expressed we must necessarily consi- 
der them implied, and that every sentence is of their dictation. 
In 2 Cor. ii, 4, Paul says himself that he wrote the former 
epistle to the Corinthians "out of much affliction and anguish 
of heart, with many tears." In Phil, iii, 18, he speaks of 
the false teachers with " weeping ;" and in 1 Thess. ii, 7, <fcc., 
he describes his ardent love for the Thessalonians, in language 
replete with energy and pathos. Does not reason then war- 
rant us in concluding that the affections here expressed are, 
in similar passages, implied? When Paul, addressing the 
converts, (1 Cor. iv, 15,) tells them, "Though ye have ten 
thousand instructors in Christ, yet not many fathers, for in 
Christ Jesus I have begotten you through the gospel," is he 
not influenced by the affection mentioned in 1 Thess. ii, 7, &c? 
When he asserts, (2 Cor. ii, 17,) that "many corrupt the 
word of God," (collate iii, 2, &c.,) who but infers that he is 
actuated by the affection noticed Phil, iii, 18? an affection 
in which indignation, sorrow, pity, &c, are blended together. 
Hence it is evident that to neglect the affections because 
they are not directly expressed, would be as palpable an error 
as to pass them over without concern where they are plainly 
and fully revealed. The indications of an affection are not 



90 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

indeed always similar, nor uniformly perspicuous; but the 
judicious and spiritual reader will ever find them to be fully 
adequate and sufficient. 

When we read the Scriptures we are bound to see that 
our natural affections be amended and corrected, and that 
our hearts, under the influence of the Holy Spirit, overflow 
with gracious affections. Without, however, a knowledge 
of these emotions, who can inspect the abyss of the human 
heart, and the depth of those feelings by which it is agita- 
ted ? And, without forming correct ideas of the affections 
which it is proposed to imitate, how shall man, who is carnal, 
"put them on?" 

The nature of discourse confirms the position. Christ says, 
(Matt, xii, 34, 35,) "How can ye, being evil, speak good 
things? for out of the abundance of the heart the mouth 
speaketh. A good man, out of the good treasure of the heart, 
bringeth forth good things : and an evil man, out of the evil 
treasure, bringeth forth evil things." These words decidedly 
evidence that unless some affection influenced the heart, lan- 
guage would not be uttered ; so that a man's words are, in 
fact, the index of his feelings or affections. What is " the 
abundance of the heart," but those internal emotions which 
inform and actuate the human soul, and which constitute, in 
a holy man, holy affections, and, in an unholy man, unholy 
aflections? So closely, indeed, are language and affections 
connected together — so indissoluble is the union that subsists 
between them — that it would be, in effect, just as unreason- 
able to divide soul from body as to separate these. Since, 
then, the affections are so intimately connected with all lan- 
guage, none will suppose that they are banished from the 
writings of the inspired penmen; and, because they are 
closely united with the language of inspiration, it follows 
that the sacred records cannot be adequately expounded by 
those who are satisfied with the mere shell and contemn the 
precious kernel of Scripture — who watch the lips, but never 
enter into the feelings of the inspired penmen. 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 91 

Since different ideas and views are communicated by dif- 
ferent affections, so that the same words pronounced under the 
influence of various emotions will convey various meanings, it 
becomes requisite to investigate and develop the affections 
of the sacred penmen, lest we impose on their language a 
sense they were not intended to deliver. Many other argu- 
ments which might be adduced we intentionally omit, because 
a treatise on this subject will best demonstrate its high im- 
portance. 

Having shown the necessity of an acquaintance with the 
doctrine of the affections, on the ground of reason, let us 
proceed for a moment to enforce its claims on the authority 
of divines. 

Wolfgang Franzius, m his invaluable book, " De Interpre- 
tation Scripturse Sacrse," discusses the question so fully, 
and illustrates his positions with examples so pertinent, as to 
render his work deserving the serious attention of the inquir- 
ing reader. 

Luther also was indebted to his knowledge of the affec- 
tions, and to his lively mode of representing them, for that 
eminent gift of exposition with which he was endowed. Of 
this his Comment on Genesis, and his Discourses on the 
Psalms, are conclusive evidences. 

We next proceed to cite some observations from the letter 
addressed by Spener to the Philo-biblical College at Leipsic. 
This celebrated man observes — " No practice will prove more 
pleasant or beneficial, and none more suitable to the college, 
than after fervent, secret prayer, to discriminate and enter 
into the affections of the inspired writers with sacred atten- 
tion and perseverance, and strive to unfold their nature and 
character. This being done, and the thoughts being collected 
and brought to bear on the subject in hand, the students 
will be able to mark, with the highest delight and profit, 
the indications of faith and of the mind of Jesus, together 
with the more minute circumstances, and easily awaken in 
their own bosoms affections of a kindred nature. That emi- 



92 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

nent divine, Luther, when speaking of this practice, says — 
* Whoever adopts it will, I am satisfied, learn more himself 
than he can gather from all commentaries united. By means 
of incessant and attentive reading, we should, as it were, 
raise the writer from the dead and consider him as alive, so as 
to form perfect conceptions, mentally, of what we cannot 
actually behold. When engaged in the study of the Scrip- 
tures the idea formed in the writer's mind should be carefully 
ascertained — the affections by which he was influenced — his 
state of life, and his office, at the time he penned the book. 
Much do I wish that the labour which Casaubon has bestowed 
upon Horace, Juvenal, and Persius, in his Prolegomena, 
were applied to the elucidation of the divine oracles, so as to 
give a just description of the genius, mind, condition, man- 
ners, and affections, peculiar to each of the sacred writers. 
These are desirable subjects that yet remain untouched.' 
Luther again remarks, ' that an expositor should, as it were, 
invest himself with the author's mind, in order that he may 
interpret him as another self.' Bernard likewise excelled in 
this heavenly art of correcting his own affections by those 
of the sacred penmen, and it was thence he derived his spir- 
itual erudition." Thus far Spener's letter; and to these 
names may be added that of Flaccus Illyricus, who also re- 
commends the study of the affections of the inspired pen- 
men. 

Let us now consider a few objections which may be made 
to this view of the subject. There are persons perhaps who 
think that the Holy Spirit is wronged when we attribute to 
the sacred writers affections which are in reality the fruit of 
his influence, and that the Scriptures are not to be referred 
to those holy men, but rather to the Holy Ghost who speaks 
by them. To this we answer that the fact of their being 
divinely inspired, far from militating against our position, 
tends itself to convince us that the Holy Spirit kindled sacred 
affections in the writers' souls; for it is absurd to suppose 
that in penning the Scriptures they viewed themselves in 






BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 93 

the light of mere machines, or that they wrote without any 
feeling or perception what we read with so great a degree of 
both. Doubtless their minds were illuminated by the Spirit, 
and their wills inflamed with pious, holy, and ardent affec- 
tions, so that they wrote as they felt, and as they were 
"moved by the Holy Ghost." 2 Peter i, 21. Indeed, it ap- 
pears that the Spirit condescended to accommodate himself 
to their peculiar genius and modes of writing, which evidently 
vary in the different books of Scripture. Hence we conclude 
that the minds of the sacred penmen were not unmoved, 
but on the contrary active, enlightened, and replete with 
holy affections. 

Besides, the inspired writers sometimes mention the affec- 
tions by which they are actuated, as has been already shown, 
and this must form a complete answer to the objection pro- 
posed ; for who will have the temerity to affirm, when Paul 
expressly declares his love, joy, desire, hope, that he really 
is not influenced by these sacred passions ? 

Again, it may possibly be objected that, on the principles 
laid down, the language of divine truth would become am- 
biguous, for that any one might give it what sense he pleased 
by referring it to various affections. In reply to this objec- 
tion, we observe that we agree in considering it a matter of 
high importance to develop the genuine and spiritual mean- 
ing of the written word, and then prove it to be so, where 
there is no gesture or modulation of voice to guide us in 
judging of the affections. To infer, however, that we must 
not examine into the affections of the inspired penmen, lest 
this ambiguity should arise, were to conceal our ignorance, 
and dissemble the difficulty rather than explain it. Daily 
experience testifies that even familiar conversation is capable 
of various interpretations, according to the affections that 
operate. Will, then, our ignorance remove these affections, 
which nature implanted, and which grace does not restrain ? 
This objection is in truth a cogent argument in favour of the 
study of the affections ; for when we have acquired ability to 



94 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 



develop them, (which certainly is attainable,) the Scriptures 
will of course cease to be ambiguous. 

It forms no solid objection to our view of the subject that 
many commentators neglect this branch of exposition and 
pass it over in silence. This consideration is abundantly 
overruled by opposing to it the high authorities that have 
advocated the cause of the affections. It might be added 
that those persons are usually but indifferent examiners of 
the Scriptures who, in searching into their meaning, depend 
partially or entirely on authority. It evidences, as Bernard 
has observed, that they do not read the word in the Spirit, 
under whose influence it was written. 

Besides, a consequence deduced from the ignorance or 
negligence of commentators can avail nothing against the 
doctrine. It is indeed to be lamented that very few are 
solicitous to ascertain the spiritual meaning of the sacred 
writings, but are anxious rather to be diffuse on critical, con- 
troverted, and difficult points, where there is a wider field for 
the range of natural intellect. This inattention to the affec- 
tions is a main reason why some commentaries are so meagre 
and unsatisfactory to spiritual readers who, with a view to 
personal edification, search after the mind of the Spirit and 
the revelations of the divine image. A comment written 
without adverting to the affections, is so only in name and 
form. 

An unrenewed man cannot attain to a just knowledge of 
the affections as a help to exposition. This is evident from 
the following considerations : — 

An unrenewed person has no perception of any but natu- 
ral affections. He speaks of spiritual affections as a blind 
man do£s of colours ; and even as it respects those which 
are natural his views are not just, so long as he is immured 
in the darkness and depravity of his corrupt nature. It is 
spiritual affections, however, that are chiefly to be known; 
for the mind of Christ best explains the mind of Christ. 
This is clear from 1 Cor. ii. 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 95 

Again, the knowledge of the affections of which we speak 
is practical ; whereas an unrenewed man peruses the Scrip- 
tures theoretically, and believes it sufficient if he understand 
them through the medium of natural reason. It likewise 
requires an inward perception, (alodrjcuc;,) of which the un- 
renewed person is destitute, and after which, while in his 
unregenerate state, he never seriously aspires. 

It seems indeed an objection to this statement that we 
daily see ungodly men not only handle the Scriptures, but 
also speak largely on its meaning, in books and commenta- 
ries, and indeed utter truths that cannot be controverted by 
pious men. This difficulty is, however, fully explained when 
we reflect that what is within the compass of a carnal man 
in profane writings, is equally so as it respects the Scriptures. 
He can, for instance, apprehend the terms as they are com- 
monly received, form the affirmation and negation, under- 
stand them when formed, and perceive the necessity of a 
consequence, as well in Holy Writ as in profane authors. 
When an unrenewed person reads the precept, " Thou shalt 
not kill," he perfectly conceives what is meant by killing ; 
he likewise understands what is prohibited, and, because the 
precept is universal, he rightly infers that he is forbidden to 
murder. But as it respects the spiritual meaning, which 
the letter does not immediately convey, and the mind of the 
Spirit, (rd (ppovrjfia rov ILvevfjLarog,) how is it possible for 
a carnal, unrenewed man to have any perception of that 
from which he is so entirely alienated ? In 1 Cor. ii, 11, 12, 
Paul affirms that " the things of God knoweth no man, but 
the Spirit of God, and they who have received not the spirit 
of the world, but the Spirit which is of God." 

As an example of this we cite James iii, where the apostle, 
by implication, accuses the persons addressed of a breach of 
the fifth commandment, and (ver. 17, 18,) describes the 
mind of the Spirit in full, perspicuous, and energetic lan- 
guage — displaying that mind, as it were, before their eyes 
in impressive points of view. It is indubitably certain that 



96 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

a carnal man can apprehend the terms of the proposition 
here advanced, and apply the precept, by legitimate conse- 
quence, to himself; but he will not, he cannot, have any 
perception, or form any idea, of the habit of a soul that is 
sanctified, and endued with heavenly knowledge and divine 
perception. On this subject we may confidently appeal to 
the believer's present and past experience. Since, then, an 
unrenewed person has no knowledge of this habit of the 
mind, how is it possible for him to have any perception of 
the emotions of a holy soul ? 

Observation and experience have likewise evidenced most 
decisively, that in consequence of the incapacity already no- 
ticed, the mind of a carnal, unregenerate person is far from 
adequately penetrating even into the sense of the letter, be- 
cause, from the very nature of things, there subsists the 
closest connexion between words and ideas. 

The consideration of the affections is fourfold. If we ex- 
amine them generally, a definition that will comport with all 
cannot be given ; nor is it indeed necessary. Let us, how- 
ever, notice them in the following points of view : — 

1. As they belong to men, in common with brutes. Un- 
der this character we must class the motions of sensitive 
appetite, arising from the imagination of good or evil, 
whether real or only apparently so. 

2. As they belong to the carnal man. In this class we 
may range the motions (facultatis appetentis) of the desir- 
ing faculty, sensitive or intellectual, arising from the appre- 
hension of good or evil, whether this be of a sensitive or 
intellectual nature. 

3. As they belong to the spiritual man. In this view an 
affection is the emotion of a soul sanctified and actuated by 
the Spirit. 

4. As they are attributed to God himself, in the sacred 
writings. This the grammarians call dvOpconondOeia, (a 
human affection,) a word which immediately suggests that 
affections cannot be attributed to the Divine Being, but that 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 97 

the Holy Spirit accommodates himself to human infirmity, 
and condescends to speak of God in a way adapted to our 
capacities. Luther explains the foundation of dvOpoj-rrorrddeca 
in this way : — " Affections are attributed to God, so far as 
they are found in the sacred writers who were inspired by 
him, and also in the ministers of the word. Thus we find, 
Gen. vi, 6, that repentance is ascribed to God, so far as JSToah, 
a holy man, under the sacred influences of the Spirit, felt 
grieved on account of the gross and universal depravity of 
mankind. Affections are likewise attributed to God, so far 
as the wicked feel them in their bosoms. Thus anger is as- 
cribed to the Divine Being because the sinner perceives, by 
the disquietude of his conscience, that God is angry with 
him." 

It will evidently be sufficient for our purpose if we con- 
sider the affections in the second and third modes ; that is, 
as they attach to the carnal and to the spiritual man. This 
will suggest all that is necessary to be known respecting the 
other modes noticed. 

As both the carnal and spiritual affections will come under 
consideration, it should be remarked that affections may be 
similar as to name, and yet, on account of their source, object, 
end, subjects, adjuncts, <fcc., be essentially different. By 
means of some definite properties or characteristics, they can, 
however, be readily distinguished. 

Characteristics of Spiritual Affections. 

1. A spiritual affection has for its source the Holy Spirit, 
and is the fruit of his influence. 

2. A spiritual affection tends to a holy end. 

3. A spiritual affection is engaged on objects that are 
divine, eternal, spiritual, and invisible. 

4. A spiritual affection, when engaged on sensible objects, 
is not employed on them as such, but only so far as they 
have relation to those which are unseen. 

5 



98 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

5. A spiritual affection is grounded on faith and love. 
When these do not operate, affections cease to be spiritual. 

6. A spiritual affection influences the subject of it to seek 
not himself nor his personal convenience as such, but God 
and his glory. 

7. A spiritual overcomes a carnal affection, though the 
latter be otherwise very violent. 

8. A spiritual affection is always connected with humility. 
The instant the mind is elated affections become carnal. 

9. A spiritual affection excites no perturbation in the 
mind, nor does it leave behind it any bitterness. It rather 
assists in the regulation of the soul, receiving every dispen- 
sation with complacency, and acquiescing in God with joy. 

10. A spiritual affection tends to the amelioration of na- 
ture, the increase of grace, and the edification of mankind ; 
having no object but the glory of God. 

Characteristics of Carnal Affections, 

1. A carnal affection, as it is opposed to those which are 
spiritual, so it has nature for its source, and is destitute of 
grace. 

2. A carnal affection has for its end the temporal preser- 
vation and amendment of nature, or it refers all things to 
pleasure, and particularly seeks such pleasure not in mental 
peace but personal convenience, and this often under a pre- 
text of duty. 

3. A carnal affection is engaged on objects that are cor- 
poreal, local, temporal, and sensitive. 

4. A carnal affection, if engaged upon spiritual objects* 
does not dwell on them as such, neither with righteous views 
nor in a consistent manner, but only so far as they have re- 
lation to private gratification or convenience. 

5. A carnal affection receives its existence and support 
from perverse self-love. 

6. A carnal affection gives the preference to things natu- 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 99 

rally pleasing, though others may approximate more nearly 
to real excellence. 

7. A carnal affection gradually disturbs the mind when it 
is at all indulged, rendering it incapable of investigating 
truth, or of performing righteous actions, and it leaves a de- 
gree of bitterness in the mind proportioned to the strength 
of the affection. Cicero justly used to term them "pertur- 
bationes animi " — (the perturbations of the mind.) 

8. A carnal affection has always a degree of pride 
(avdddeia) in it, though it is often very subtile. As long 
as this has place in the mind, carnal affections are not put off. 

9. A carnal affection often induces a visible change of the 
body. 

The characteristics we have enumerated are by no means 
all, but they are the more general ones — those which are 
most consonant with our present object, and which may 
afford matter whence to derive others of a more special kind. 
If the reader apply himself to do this, his labor will not be 
unprofitable. 

The object of the characteristics which have been adduced, 
is to develop with more facility the affections of the inspired 
writers. 

Although the carnal affections are by these characteristics 
separated from the spiritual affections, we are not thence to 
conclude that they are so separated in the heart of a renewed 
person as that the former never mingle with the latter. On 
the contrary, the believer's daily strife is to be more and 
more delivered from the sinful affections of carnal nature. 
It is according to the reigning affections that a man is de- 
nominated carnal or spiritual. To suppose, however, that 
renewed and unrenewed men have the same perception of 
the affections of the sacred writers, is a radical error. It 
were impious to ascribe any mixture of good and bad affec- 
tions to the Holy Spirit, though we cannot deny that sacred 
affections show themselves in a sanctified nature by external 
and natural indications. 



100 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

1. Affections are either simple or compound. The simple 
affections are love, hatred, desire, aversion, joy, sorrow, hope, 
despair, fear, confidence, anger. The Cartesian philosophy 
not unreasonably classes with them the affections of admi- 
ration, contempt, and other emotions of the mind relating 
chiefly to the intellect. The compound are those in which 
many affections concur, as compassion, indignation, envy, 
emulation, &c. It is not enough to have a general knowl- 
edge of the affections, since every word may flow from a 
different emotion. 

2. In the consideration of the sacred text, a distinction is 
to be made between the affections of the writer, those of 
the person addressed, the affections of the subject of 
discourse, and those which are attributed to the blessed 
God. Hence it is evidently necessary not only to ascertain 
the affection, but to determine the subject. This will have a 
tendency to cause the thing itself to be more accurately, dis- 
tinctly, and duly weighed, and the delightful harmony that 
subsists between the affections of the different subjects will 
be likewise more fully unfolded. It will also assist us to 
discern the principles of holy wisdom, according to which 
affections may be regulated by affections. This is certainly 
of high importance, though as a help it has hitherto been 
seldom noticed or improved. 

3. In examining the affections, those are to be considered 
first which are expressly named, and afterwards those which 
are not immediately declared. Thus, by proceeding from 
easier to more difficult points, we shall gradually enter into 
the affections, even in those passages that afford no direct 
indications of them. 

4. When the affections are not expressly named, the text 
should be examined according to the characteristics. Every 
characteristic is to be so applied, both carnal and spiritual : 
the former class to the affections of those persons who are 
the subjects of the discourse, and to those of the writer ; and 
the latter oftentimes to different subjects, but specially to the 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 101 

sacred penmen. Wherever we recognise a characteristic we 
must conclude there is a latent affection, for dissimulation 
has no place in the word of God. 

It is proper here not only to have the general characteris- 
tics of the affections ascertained, but likewise those which 
are special, and accommodated to individual affections. The 
reader will thus easily attain to a special as well as general 
knowledge of holy affections. 

The characteristics may be accommodated not only to 
words, but likewise to actions and entire details. 

The several characteristics should be separately applied to 
the subjects whenever an indiscriminate application would 
be an infringement on the Spirit speaking in the Scriptures. 
The reader (especially if one of the Epistles be perused) 
may be considered as standing in a college, where, while he 
listens to the person speaking, and hangs, as it were, upon 
his lips, the affections of those who are absent and those 
who are present are successively brought before him, and he 
learns from both what to imitate and what to avoid. 

It would be exceedingly useful to have the several affec- 
tions so practically developed, from carefully examining our 
own, that we might without difficulty express their charac- 
teristics in perspicuous and suitable words. To adopt the 
language of Franzius, "when the mind is thus engaged, 
the word will become ineffably sweet and inconceivably 
precious." He who reposes in God with placid and calm 
affection may contemplate the turbulent passions of the hu- 
man heart, as well as the gracious emotions excited in a 
sanctified soul by the Holy Spirit, and by tasting of divine 
wisdom perceive its nature and appreciate its worth. Here, 
indeed, an inscrutable abyss will open to his view, and, as 
Luther hath remarked, " meditation, when strengthened and 
supported by frequent exercise, will suggest more, much 
more, than all our commentaries united." May the reader 
be encouraged to aspire after this most useful and profitable 
help! 



102 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

It may be added that exercise will be cherished into habit, 
and that the characteristics can be so familiarized by patient 
practice and pious experience as to leave the student at lib- 
erty to draw them from " the good treasure of his heart." 

5. All the circumstances which the text supplies, or which 
may be otherwise known, should be weighed and examined, 
if we aim at forming a right judgment of the latent affec- 
tion. Though only one circumstance remain unknown, a 
very different affection may be often ascribed to the speaker, 
of which we have frequent examples, even in familiar con- 
versation. The circumstances, Who? What? Where? By 
what means? Why? How? When? should be, as much 
as possible, applied. 

The circumstance which may be more remarkable in one 
place than in another is to be chiefly urged, though, in par- 
ticular places, the major part contribute to give weight to 
the affections. 

All circumstances are not always necessary to be accom- 
modated to all words. Some words have peculiar reference 
to particular circumstances, and, as it were, point them out 
It is, however, necessary sometimes to examine all the cir- 
cumstances accurately, and, indeed, the more attentive the 
student is, the more will he enter into the spirit of the text 
and the mind of the holy penmen. 

6. Love is justly considered as the foundation, or rather 
source, of every affection in the inspired penmen. 

The first fruit of the Spirit (Gal. v, 22) is love. This af- 
fection, however, sometimes receives different designations, 
according to the circumstances. Love to God and man was 
the preeminent affection in the soul of St. Paul. Hence, 
when he addresses penitent sinners, (as in his Second 
Epistle to the Corinthians,) we may plainly discover that his 
desire, fear, hope, piety, joy, in short, that all his affections 
spring from love. 

7. Pronunciation, or the modulation of the voice in utter- 
ing any text, is by no means to Be neglected. 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 103 

This ever follows the course of the affections and the dic- 
tates of nature, and hence a discourse delivered vivd voce is 
much more easily apprehended than one written. So facts 
which the eye witnesses are far more convincing than those 
which are related to us. 

The deficiency under which every student of Scripture, in 
this respect, labours, may be supplied by first using every 
method of eliciting the true meaning of the text, and then 
pronouncing it according to the sense and affection previously 
and carefully ascertained. 

It is presumed, however, that no person will raise any in- 
terpretation of Scripture on the foundation of this or any 
other help alone, but apply all rules of exposition in regular 
order. He who neglects this injunction will often deceive 
others and be deceived himself. 

The punctuation and other distinctions which have in the 
course of time been introduced into the text, materially affect 
the pronunciation, and will often lead the reader to attribute 
affections which the passage, when divested of its human 
appendages, would by no means warrant. On this account 
we should lose sight of these arbitrary distinctions until the 
affection be ascertained. Those ancient copies in which the 
text is not divided into verses, are, in this view, to be pre- 
ferred. 

8. In examining the affections, we profit chiefly by an ar- 
dent and holy emulation of those sacred emotions which we 
contemplate in the inspired writers. 

The more we " put on" their affections, the more deeply 
shall we enter into their writings and meditate on the truths 
which they reveal. Whenever the affections of the sacred 
penmen develop and unfold themselves, let us seek to possess 
the same amiable emotions, and, if possible, the same degree 
of them in our own bosoms; and let us, by the grace of 
God, strive to correct every irregularity of temper. The 
meaning of Scripture, thus laid up in the heart rather than 
the head, will transform our souls a from glory into glory," 



104 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

and we shall experience that "the word of God is quick 
and powerful, and sharper than any two-edged sword; 
piercing even to the dividing asunder of soul and spirit, 
and of the joints and marrow, and is a discerner of the 
thoughts and intents of the heart." 



ES. 



CHAPTER IX. 

MEANS OF HARMONIZING APPARENT DISCREPANCIES 

If it could be plainly shown that two passages of Scripture 
contradict each other, and that no method of conciliation is 
practicable, it must necessarily follow that one of the read- 
ings in the usual copies must be faulty, and an emendation 
of the text must be sought. Of this nature, perhaps, is the 
passage in John xix, 14, compared with Matthew xxvii, 45 
and Mark xv, 25 ; also, as many think, Luke iii, 36, compa- 
red with Genesis x, 24. Some add Matthew xxvii, 9, com- 
pared with Zechariah xi, 12, 13. 

If the text of both passages plainly appears to be genuine, 
so that it cannot fairly be questioned, then it must be under- 
stood that there is a mere appearance of inconsistency, which 
should be removed, and the passage conciliated by a proper 
interpretation. 

The appearance of inconsistencies sometimes occurs in 
passages of a doctrinal, and sometimes of a historical kind. 
The writers of the New Testament sometimes appear to be 
at variance with themselves, sometimes with each other, 
and occasionally with the writers of the Old Testament. 
As an example of variance with themselves, instance 1 Cor. 
viii, 1, compared with verse 7. For an example of variance 
with each other, Paul asserts that a man is justified by faith and 
not by works. James asserts that a man is justified not by 
faith only, but also by works. The difference is, however, 
only in appearance, not in reality. 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 105 

In doctrinal passages an apparent contradiction, that is to 
be removed, arises for the most part either from the style of 
the authors, which is rather of the popular kind than that 
of nice refinement, or from the genius of the oriental lan- 
guages, which differs so widely from that of the western 
ones. An apparent contradiction, in respect to doctrines 
plainly taught, is to be removed by theologians in the way 
of explaining things rather than words merely, and so it 
comes not directly within the province of the interpreter. 

The method of harmonizing apparent doctrinal discrepan- 
cies may be regarded by the following rules: — 1. An ob- 
scure passage should be explained in accordance with what 
is plain and without any ambiguity. For example, we must 
explain all the anthropopathical expressions in regard to 
God by the plain truth that his nature is spiritual. 2. A 
passage in which a doctrine is merely touched or adverted 
to, is to be explained by other passages which present plain 
and direct exhibitions of it. For instance, the subject of 
justification in Romans iii is designedly treated at large ; 
of the resurrection, in 1 Cor. xv. Such passages are called 
classic, {loci classici,) and by them other expressions, which 
simply occur obiter, are to be explained. 

We must, however, be careful to harmonize apparent dis- 
crepancies, if it can be done, by recourse to the usus loquendi, 
so that all occasion of doubt or cavilling may be removed ; 
for it is very desirable that the usus loquendi should justify 
that sense which we put upon any doubtful passage, from 
having compared it with passages that are plain and clear. 

Many things of a doctrinal nature are simply and abso- 
lutely declared, agreeably to common usage, in all languages, 
which still have only a relative sense. This may be ac- 
counted for from the fact that there are parts of religion 
which are commonly known and understood, therefore such 
parts do not need accurate limitations. For example, that 
we are saved by faith is one of the elementary principles of 
j the Christian religion. The sacred writers, therefore, do not, 

5* 



106 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

on every mention of any duty, remind us of this principle, 
inasmuch as they expect us to keep it always in memory. 
When they say that alms-giving is acceptable to God, they 
expect to be understood as meaning, if it be accompanied 
by faith. In this way apparent discrepancies may be re- 
conciled, and the reconciliation becomes the more probable 
as the reason for it can be given. 

Apparent discrepancies, arising from oriental style or man- 
ner of expression, are quite numerous. For example, pluck 
out the eye that offends ; cut off the hand that offends ; it 
is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, &c. ; 
to follow Christ one must hate parents, &c, &c. The context, 
passages similar as to the subject, the nature of the style, 
the subject itself, &c, are the means of finding the true 
sense of such places, and then the harmony of these with 
other passages is obvious. 

Apparent discrepancies with other writers, or between 
different parts of the same writer, not unfrequently occur. 
For example, in addition to what has been given supra, the 
advice of Paul, 1 Cor. vii, respecting matrimony, is only pro 
tempore, and dictated merely by the exigencies of the times 
in which he wrote. In many other places his writings con- 
tain a different sentiment. Again, in Romans iii, 20 it is 
said that a man cannot be justified by works ; but in ii, 13 it is 
stated that TTocTjrla, doers of the law, shall be justified. Here 
one verse states the rule of legal justification, the other that 
no man can claim it on the ground of that rule. Where it 
is said we are justified by faith, the meaning is that we re- 
ceive pardon on the ground of gratuity ; but justification as 
applied to the doers of the law, means reward on the ground 
of merit or perfect obedience. 

Discrepancies seem to exist at times between the writers 
of the Old Testament and the New, merely from the differ- 
ent manner in which they express themselves on the same 
subjects, when this is rather to be attributed to the different 
degrees of light which the writers had, and to the differences 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 107 

in the eras, manners, and habits of each. For example, 
the subject of war, of loving enemies, of benevolence to 
the Gentiles, of God's equal and paternal regard to them, 
of gratuitous justification, &c. A representation less perfect 
in the Old Testament need not be understood as contradict- 
ing one more perfect in the New. 

Apparent discrepancies of an historical nature originate 
from a different design and manner in narrating the same 
thing, as often happens in the Gospels ; for a diversity of de- 
sign varies the choice of circumstances. Many circumstances 
differ, after all, in nothing important as to designating the 
ideas which the authors in common mean to designate ; and 
oftentimes they may be either commuted for each other or 
omitted. It is of no importance, sometimes, whether a thing 
be asserted in a generic or specific form. 

Far more frequently an appearance of discrepancy arises 
from the mere manner of expression, which seems at first 
view to imply a difference in the things described, while it is 
merely a difference in the mode of describing them. It is 
very evident that the best and most careful writers do not 
always exhibit the same precise and accurate method in re- 
spect to the names of things, persons, or places. For ex- 
ample, Matthew xvii, 14, compare Luke ix, 38; Gadarene 
and Gergasene ; Matthew viii, 28, compare Mark v, 2 ; 
Matthew v, 1, compare Luke vi, 17. Also in regard to 
numbers. For example, Matthew xxvii, 44, compare Luke 
xxiii, 39 ; Matthew viii, 5-9, compare Luke vii, 1-10 ; Matt, 
viii, 28, compare Mark v, 2 ; Acts vii, 14, compare Genesis 
xlvi, 27 ; Acts vii, 6, compare Gal. iii, 17. And in regard to 
dates and years, see Luke ii, 2, compared with the history of 
the Syrian proconsuls. 

Where several names of the same object exist, they some- 
times exhibit one and sometimes another. In regard to the 
manner of expressing time, places, and numbers, sometimes 
they use the more common and indistinct method, and some- 
times the more accurate one. In designating time, they 



108 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

vary. They sometimes put genus for species, and vice 
versa. Examples of such a nature occur in common histo- 
ries, as well as in the Gospels. We should make ourselves 
acquainted with conciliations of passages in the best classic 
authors. 

In historic discrepancies we must guard against confound- 
ing things which really differ, merely because they have 
some similitude ; or deducing discrepancies therefrom, as has 
often happened in the interpretations of profane authors. 

Great efforts have been made to harmonize the Gospel 
narrations. Several hundred harmonies have been written. 
Some have chosen one Gospel as exhibiting the regular order 
of time, and made the rest conform to it as a standard. 
Others have rejected the supposition of perfect chronological 
order in any. Some have made the number of facts related 
as small as possible, and forced the language to a harmony ; 
others have multiplied the number of facts, so that every 
narration comprising a single circumstance of discrepancy 
from others has been supposed to contain a history of a 
similar, but still of a separate fact. Some have supposed the 
public ministry of Christ to have continued for three years ; 
others for more than seven. Some have supposed that Paul 
went to Jerusalem soon after his conversion ; others that he 
was from five to seven years in the deserts of Arabia and in 
the city of Damascus prior to that visit. 

Among the German critics numerous and contradictory 
theories are found. From such a chaos of conflicting opinions 
the young interpreter can find refuge in the diligent, thorough, 
repeated study of the Gospels, with a candid mind and a 
prayerful, believing heart. Let him carry with him to his 
study a fundamental knowledge of the nature of language, 
that he may not be embarrassed with the mere form of 
words; as the sense of the Scriptures, and not the words, 
which are the mere costume of the sense, is what should 
govern him in his investigations. The notion which attaches 
absolute perfection to the form of language, as well as to 



BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 109 

the sense which it conveys, makes the reconciliation of them 
impossible. In some cases two, three, or even the four evan- 
gelists relate the same thing in different words. Now if the 
form of the words in one is absolutely perfect, what is to 
be said of the other three, who have adopted different forms ? 
And if the form of a narration in Luke, with two or three 
more circumstances interwoven, is absolutely perfect, what 
becomes of the narrations in Matthew and Mark, where one 
or more of these circumstances are omitted? 

It is a fact, which admits of no doubt, that the sacred writ- 
ers differ from each other as much in respect to the mode of 
writing as profane authors. 

In harmonizing passages, those which are doubtful should 
be interpreted by those which are plain. The doubtful and 
uncertain must always be accommodated to the plain and 
certain. As the subject respects occasional historical facts 
merely, we may add, in conclusion, that nothing endangering 
our salvation is connected with the discrepancies. 



l»rt $antt\. 

BIBLICAL ANALYSIS 



The analytical study of the Bible is that by which we insti- 
tute a logical analysis, and consider the structure, connexion, 
and order of entire books and particular texts of the Old and 
New Testaments ; that, being thus resolved into their first 
principles, they may be understood with the greater facility 
and precision. This branch of study is not prescribed on the 
supposition that the sacred penmen affected to compose and 
arrange their subjects according to the rules of logic, for it 
were absurd to suppose that it were necessary for men 
divinely inspired thus to be obliged to a scientific arrange- 
ment but because order is so natural in the investigation of 
all things, that it is right and proper to apply it to language 
whether sacred or profane, and tends in no small degree 
to render it perspicuous and easy to be understood. 

This is evident in all language ; for, though it be of the 
most familiar kind, it will not please even an illiterate person 
unless its parts harmonize and order be observed. 

The importance of obtaining an accurate knowledge of 
logical analysis is evident from the following considerations : — 
1. As all helps calculated to expound the Scriptures recipro- 
cally explain, assist, and confirm each other, so analysis has a 
great effect in determining the emphasis, idiom, literal sense, 
inferences, and practical application. 2. Analysis causes the 
several members, and even words of the text, to be considered 
with more accuracy and precision. 3. It affords special aid 
to memory. 4. When anything is to be proven, or has been 
proven from a text, it lays the whole connexion of the subject 



BIBLICAL ANALYSIS. Ill 

open to inspection. 5. It assists in meditation, and in the 
delivery of a sermon. 6. It develops the grounds on which 
the inspired writers propounded their doctrines, which is a 
point of much importance. 7. It conduces in no small de- 
gree to the decision of controversies. 

Logical study is employed either on whole books or 
particular texts. The solution of particular texts, however, 
presupposes an acquaintance with the structure of whole 
books. Those who begin with texts are generally deficient, 
as they are not prepared for that branch of analysis. 

In logical study the books of Scripture must evidently be 
considered under different points of view. First, the doctrinal 
books are to be distinguished from the historical, prophetical, 
andpoetical ; and these must be distinguished from each other. 

The doctrinal books consist of one or many subjects. If 
they consist of many, they must be separated and analyzed 
apart. For example, the First Epistle to the Corinthians 
treats of the following subjects : — 

1. The inconsiderate zeal of the Church, under the influ- 
ence of which one person preferred Paul and another Apollos, 
to chap. 4 inclusive. 

2. The incest which had been committed among them, 
chap. 5. 

3. Their law-suits, chap. 6. 

4. Their fornication, chap. 6. 

5. Of marriage and divorce, chap. 7. 

6. Of things offered to idols, chap. 8, 9, 10. 

7. Of the external deportment of Christians in the public 
congregation, chap. 11. 

8. Of the abuse of the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper, 
chap. 11. 

9. Of spiritual gifts, and the harmony subsisting between 
such gifts in certain particulars, chap. 12. 

10. Of Christian love, chap. 13. 

11. Of the manner of conducting holy assemblies and 
teaching therein, chap. 14. 



112 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

12. Of the resurrection, chap. 15. 

13. Of alms, <fec, chap. 16. 

If they consist of but one subject, the following rules must 
be observed : — 

1. By frequent reading, the scope or design and general 
subject should be well ascertained and understood. 

2. All conclusions affecting the principal design and gene- 
ral subject of the whole book, must be sedulously compared 
with the design. 

3. The middle terms must be thoroughly weighed, and 
compared with all the subordinate conclusions. 

It may prove sufficient, to give us a proper understanding 
of the structure of a book, if we duly consider the design of 
the whole, the conclusions accommodated to the design, 
and the middle terms prepared to produce these conclusions 
all arranged in their proper order. That this may more 
effectually be accomplished, it will be necessary to observe 
the following remarks : — 

1. The greater number of the books in question are of a 
polemical character, and hence, if the opposite proposition be 
examined, it will afford material service in ascertaining the 
design and in distinguishing it from that of other books. 
This is evidently the case in the Epistle to the Galatians. 

Most of the epistles are divided into four parts, or rather 
contain two principal parts, of which the former is doctrinal 
and the latter hortatory or practical, and applicatory — as 
may be seen in Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, and Colos- 
sians — and the two secondary parts contain the exordium 
and conclusion. If an analysis of the doctrinal part be 
properly instituted, but little difficulty will attend the others. 
For instance, an analysis of Colossians will show the following : 

1. The occasion of its writing, namely: Paul's love for 
the Church — the difficulties which had arisen in consequence 
of the errors which had been introduced by Judaizing Chris- 
tians — the entreaties of Epaphras on their behalf. From 
these, the design of the whole epistle may be easily ascer- 



BIBLICAL ANALYSIS. 113 

tained, which was, that Paul, in obedience to his duty .as an 
apostle, might confirm the Colossian converts in the doctrines 
of faith and holiness, and that he might heal the difficulties 
occasioned by Jewish errors. In regard to the division of 
the epistle, it is so plain and natural as easily to be distin- 
guished by the careful reader. After the inscription, (chap, i, 
ver. 1, 2,) the epistle may be said to comprehend an ex- 
ordium, (chap, i, 3-8,) & proposition, (ver. 9-12,) a confirma- 
tion, (chap, i, 13, to iv, ?,) and a conclusion. The exordium 
unfolds the occasion of writing the epistle — the proposition 
reveals the design of its writing — the confirmation is designed 
to establish the Colossians in faith and induce holiness. It is 
doctrinal and elenchical, or confutatory. The conclusion refers 
to the mutual communication of their several states — the 
salutations of the brethren — special directions — a remem- 
brance of himself, and a prayer for their welfare. 

Several books treat of the same, or at least of a Mndred 
subject, and some analytical aid may be drawn from this 
affinity. Thus, for instance, the Epistle to the Romans and 
Galatians both treat of justification ; and the Epistles ad- 
dressed to the Ephesians, Philippians, and Colossians, touch 
likewise on the same subject. 

The historical books are attended with less difficulty, be- 
cause the order in an historical narration cannot but be 
obvious. The different histories which they contain should, 
however, be accurately separated, and then considered ac- 
cording to antecedents and consequents. It would be well 
to study them, not by chapters, but by distinct subjects. 

The prophetical books are very similar in nature to the 
historical books, and borrow light from them. The prophe- 
tical books relate to the future, as the historical books relate 
to the past. 

The Psalms must be analyzed separately, and being short, 
they will be solved with more ease than whole books, espec- 
ially if the student is careful not to infringe, by any refined 
logical subtleties, on the prophetic spirit, the affections of the 



114 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

writer, and the design of God, the Holy Spirit. When anal- 
ysis has in it anything forced, it must necessarily be defec- 
tive. A warm and glowing emotion will frequently over- 
leap the limits of accustomed order. We do best when we 
seek the order in the subject, and not the subject in an order 
which we may have conceived. 

In analyzing a doctrinal text, the following rules must be 
observed : — 

1. The text should be referred to the proper subject and 
general design of the whole book, for various things belong 
to various scopes. 

2. We must examine whether the text has not a nearer 
connexion with some subordinate design, and consequently 
a mediate rather than an immediate reference to the design 
of the whole book. 

3. It is proper to inquire whether the text refers to the 
general design as a conclusion, as a middle term, or as a 
perfect syllogism; and also whether the argument go to 
prove, to explain, or to illustrate, — all which it will not be 
difficult to ascertain when we are thoroughly acquainted 
with the subject and structure of the whole book or section. 

4. The proposition contained in the text must next be 
formed and examined, and this not in different or more 
simple language, (which belongs to exegesis,) but in the very 
words of the text. 

5. The subject and predicate of the proposition must be 
considered. 

6. The accidental matter which may attach to the subject 
and predicate must be separated, and it should be ascertained 
what part of it belongs to the former and what to the latter, 
as well as what relation they bear to each other. 

7. If there be several doctrines enumerated in one text, 
they must be examined separately, and afterwards the 
order in which they are connected should be ascertained — 
a point to which the inspired writers are usually very at- 
tentive. 



BIBLICAL ANALYSIS. 115 

For instituting an analysis of any entire doctrinal book, 
the following rules are necessary : — 

1. The student, by frequent reading, should make himself 
thoroughly acquainted with the whole book in the original. 
It should be read until the meaning is fully apprehended, 
and the subject or subjects of the whole become clear. It 
should be perused, as we may suppose the Epistles of Paul 
addressed to the several Churches were perused — frequently, 
not with many interruptions ; not by chapters, but the whole 
read at once, until the mind, of the writer is fully under- 
stood. It would be vastly better if the Scriptures were read 
without any regard whatever to the arbitrary and frequently 
improper divisions of chapter and verse. 

2. From this perusal, reperusal, and repetition, the student 
must be careful to derive a proper knowledge of the design 
which the author had in writing, and thus obtain an ac- 
quaintance with the general subject of the book. 

The following precautions are necessary : — 1. The student 
should observe the words by which the writer declares his 
object and design, which he frequently does in express terms. 
2. He should observe the historical incidents noticed in the 
text, from which some judgment may be formed of the state 
of the controversy, as well as of the circumstances of the 
Church or person to whom the book is addressed. 3. In 
regard to the New Testament, when reference can be made 
to the Acts of the Apostles, that book should be examined 
and collated with the text, as it throws light on the doctrinal 
books. 4. Weigh every word attentively, and consider 
whether it contains anything which may lead to a more ac- 
curate judgment of the design and subject of the whole. 

When all this has been done, the student should resume 
the book and sedulously weigh the conclusions interspersed 
through it. These are best ascertained by the particles 
ovv, dpa, did, &c. — wherefore, therefore, &c. With regard to 
these conclusions — 1. Some knowledge must be gained 
of their meaning. 2. Compare them together, in order to 



116 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

determine in what they agree and in what they differ. 
3. Compare them with the design and subject of the whole 
book, both of which, it is supposed, are become familiar to the 
student. 4. Those things should be distinguished which 
contain the entire design of the whole book, immediately in 
themselves ; and those which are referred to it mediately, 
that is, are as middle terms to the principal conclusion. 
According to the accuracy with which the conclusions are 
understood, and the precision with which they are dis- 
tinguished, will the work of logical analysis become more or 
less easy. For what is it to institute a separate reasoning 
or logical analysis, but to search out the truth contained in 
any proposition or conclusion, and the middle terms by which 
that truth is demonstrated ? 

The conclusions being thus examined, the student should 
resume the book, and ascertain the middle terms or reasons 
on which these conclusions are founded, whether they precede 
or follow them. In a logical analysis it is proper to notice 
that which proves, and to separate what is explanatory from 
that which is illustrative. 

Having thus thoroughly examined the book, its com- 
ponent parts will become very perceptible. If there be an 
exordium or conclusion, a separation must take place between 
them, and each must be considered by itself. Should they 
prove to be twofold, partly doctrinal and partly practical, 
each branch must likewise be examined apart. 

Since, however, this species of study is properly confined 
to the letter of the word, we should be more solicitous to 
analyze a text, than concerned about understanding and 
applying it. 

In further illustration of this study, we shall present a full 
and careful analysis of the Epistle to the Ephesians. 

This Epistle consists of two parts — the first being com- 
prehended in the first three chapters, and the second in the 
last three. The former is doctrinal, and the latter infe- 
rential and hortatory. 



BIBLICAL ANALYSIS. 117 

The doctrinal division contains one principal doctrine. 
Special doctrines are interspersed ; but they are incidental, and 
adduced to explain and enforce the principal one, or one 
derived from it. 

The principal doctrine is thus stated: — "Although a Jew 
and Gentile convert differ, inasmuch as the former enjoyed 
a priority of time in point of expecting and acknowledging 
Christ, and through the grace of God the Jewish Church 
was established before the Gentile, yet now the latter are 
partakers of the same grace with them ; and being admitted 
to this communion of grace, every real distinction is abolished, 
and Jews and Gentiles constitute one body, of whom Christ 
is the head. It was essentially necessary for the Ephesians, 
and indeed for all Gentile converts, that this doctrine should 
be asserted, because the contentious Jews, vain of their 
national prerogative, would acknowledge none to be brethren 
who did not submit their necks to the yoke of Judaism, 
observe the law, and trust in it for justification. Hence 
the apostle considers the subject not only in the present 
Epistle, but in most others as above mentioned. In his 
addresses, however, to the various Churches, his mode of 
treating the subject was accommodated to the peculiar 
circumstances of the persons addressed. Sometimes it was 
his object to prove that justification is of faith and not of the 
law, because false apostles maintained the contrary ; at other 
times he exhorts the brethren to guard against such men, 
adding his reasons for the admonition; sometimes he only 
recalls them from the tenets of those persons to the true 
faith. In this Epistle, however, he aims at subverting the 
very foundation of the opponent's doctrine, which rested on 
the boasted prerogative that the Jews enjoyed over the 
Gentiles in point of time. 

In order the more effectually to accomplish this object, he 
states in the first place the proper prerogative of the Jewish 
nation, lest, by passing in silence over these privileges, he 
should do an injury to himself as a Jew, and to his own 



118 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

nation, as well as to the truth itself, which was of infinitely 
greater moment. To comprehend this position, the student 
must examine the whole structure of the Epistle, otherwise 
it may not readily be discerned. Let him, in the first 
place, examine the distinction in the application of the 
personal pronouns. After using the pronouns of the first 
person, we, us, &c, as far as the 12th verse of the 1st chapter, 
the apostle invariable adopts the second person in the fol- 
lowing verses. Hence he thus connects the 13th verse, 
" In whom ye also," <fec, which clearly indicates a change 
in the subject ; and he continues to use this pronoun until 
he institutes a new comparison between the subjects. When 
speaking in reference to the Jews, he says, " to us ;" and 
when speaking in reference to the Gentiles, he says, " to you" 

If a collation is made of chap. 2, verses 11, 12, 13, <fcc, it 
will be found that the different subjects hitherto represented 
by the different pronouns are expressly named — "the 
uncircumcision" viz., the Gentiles ; and " the circumcision," 
viz., the Jews. 

The truth of the position assumed will appear secondly 
from the circumstance that the predicate restricts the former 
part of the chapter to the Jews — thus they are called " those 
who first trusted in Christ." 

The objection which lies against predestinate — ixooooi^eiv — 
on the ground of its being a general word, and indicative of 
a priority of time and not of a priority of subjects, cannot 
militate against " to trust first" — ttooeXtxI^eiv — because 
this latter word must include both, since the trusting here 
spoken of is inevitably to be referred to man and not to God. 

Again, it is said in the ninth and following verses that the 
mystery of the divine will was revealed to them in order 
that it might be dispensed — elg ol/covofilav — in the fulness 
of time, and that all things, Gentiles as well as Jews, might 
be brought under one head, even Christ. The Jews first 
received this general dispensation ; but the benefits of it had 
been conferred upon the Gentiles in common with them, 






BIBLICAL ANALYSIS. 119 

priority of time only excepted. The apostle asserts, " In 
whom ye — Gentiles — also trusted after that ye heard the 
word of truth, the gospel of your salvation ; in whom also 
after that ye believed, ye were sealed with that Holy Spirit 
of promise which is the earnest of our" — the Jews' — "in- 
heritance." " Wherefore I, also, after I heard of your faith 
in the Lord Jesus and love unto all the saints," &c. 

The apostle pursues the same subject to the 3d verse of 
the 2d chapter. " That you may know what is the exceeding 
greatness of his power to ^s-ward who believe, according to 
the working of his mighty power, which he wrought in Christ, 
when he raised him from the dead, and set him at his own 
right hand in the heavenly places, far above all principality, 
and power, and might, and dominion, and every name that 
is named, not only in this world, but also in that which is to 
come ; and hath put all things under his feet, and gave him 
to be the head over all things to the Church, which is his 
body, the fulness of him that filleth all in all." " And you 
who were dead in trespasses and sins ; wherein in time past 
ye walked," &c. 

Whenever the apostle descends to the original state of the 
Gentiles, he institutes a comparison between it and the 
primeval state of the Jews, lest the latter should take occasion 
to assert some new prerogative. He proves, by the testimony 
of the consciences of each, that Jews as well as Gentiles 
were before Christ under sin, and that both were saved and 
brought to newness of life by grace alone. 

The above verses, united with the subsequent as far as 
chap. 3d, comprehend the principal conclusion of the whole 
epistle, which fully develops its scope. The conclusion is, 
" Though the Gentiles were not originally possessed of the 
covenants of promise, or any foundation of hope, yet in 
Christ they, together with the Jews, were made partakers 
of every benefit, Christ having removed all things which 
opposed their union with the Jews, and forming them into 
one body by abolishing the law. Hence the Gentiles were 



120 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

not now — as was asserted by Jewish false apostles — strangers 
and aliens, but being reconciled to God by the blood of 
Christ, they were become fellow-citizens with the saints, and 
of the household of God." 

The connexion of the 1st verse of chap. 3d with the 14th 
is not singular, but in perfect accordance with the design of 
the apostle. If the first verse is examined, it will be seen 
that he names the subject : — " For this cause, I Paul, the 
prisoner of Jesus Christ for you Gentiles." He then forms 
the predicate, and repeats the same words. " For this cause 
— I say — I bow my knees." All the words that intervene 
between verses 2d and 14th are insulated. The length of 
this parenthesis is no argument against the correctness of 
the position, as instances of equally copious parentheses 
occur in various parts of the Bible. Examples may be found, 
in the writings of the Fathers, of long parentheses ; besides, it 
was a peculiarity in the writings of Paul, as may be seen by 
reference to 1 Timothy i, 8-17 ; Philippians i, 27, to ii, 16 
inclusive. 

The other part of this Epistle is hortatory, and flows 
from the doctrinal part as streams from a fountain. With 
the apostle, the injunctions of practice follow the positions of 
theory. The best example of this is in the Epistle to the 
Colossians, one part of which refers to faith, or what is to 
be believed, and the other to practice, or what is to be done. 

The main exhortation that arises from the principal doctrine, 
is concord and peace between the Jew and Gentile. This is 
the general scope of the whole Epistle. 

The next design is, to present before Jew and Gentile the 
difference between their present and former state. In order 
to this, he first points out the difference from ver. 17 to 24 ; 
second, he lays down some particular precepts which are 
universally binding, ver. 25 to chap, v, verse 21, inclusive; 
third, he delivers to all, according to their particular stations 
in life, special commandments — to wives, verse 22 to the 
end ; to children, chap, vi, 1-3 ; to parents, verse 4 ; to ser- 






BIBLICAL ANALYSIS. 121 

vants, verses 5-8 ; to masters, verse 9. Here the apostle 
adopts the same method, always placing inferiors before 
superiors, and the weaker before the stronger. He likewise 
puts generals before specials throughout the whole epistle, 
which is the best mode of arrangement, — see Colossians 
iii, 18, &c, 1 Peter iii, 1-7, <fec, — and draws all his argu- 
ments, relative to any particular scope, from the principal 
doctrine proposed in the foregoing part, as plainly appears 
from chap, v, verse 23, &c. He also furnishes means for 
the attainment of the things enjoyed and for defending them 
against the wiles of the devil, to chap, vi, 20, inclusive. 

These things being explained, and Tychicus, the bearer 
of the letter, being directed to give the Ephesians fuller in- 
formation concerning St. Paul, — verses 21, 22, — he concludes 
by saluting them and invoking the divine blessing. 

6 



BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY 



Biblical Archaeology embraces everything in the Bible 
worthy of notice and remembrance, whether it be merely 
alluded to, or treated as something well known. It is con- 
cerned more particularly in the description of the Domestic, 
Political, and Religious Antiquities of the Bible. Its import- 
ance to the Bible student will appear from the following 
considerations : — 

1. It enables him to go back more fully into the age, 
country, and situation of the sacred writers and their contem- 
poraries, and to understand and estimate the nature and ten- 
dencies of the objects which are presented to him. 

2. It places him in a better situation to detect allusions 
to ceremonies, customs, laws, peculiarities in the face of the 
country, <fcc, and to make himself sure of the precise import 
of the passages where such allusions occur. 

3. It proffers him new ability in answering the objections 
of the opposers of Revelation, the greater part of which 
originate in ignorance of antiquity. 

4.«It presents to his view, distinctly and impressively, the 
adaptation of the different dispensations, the object of which 
was to preserve and transmit religion to the character and 
situation of the age. 

5. It shows him where to separate moral precept and 
religious truth from the drapery of the figurative language 
in which they are clothed ; since language, considered as the 
medium of thought, takes its character in a measure from that 
of the times. 



BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 123 

6. It enables him to enter into the nature and spirit 
of the arguments in favour of the authenticity of the sacred 
books. 

7. Its importance may be seen, lastly, from the fact that 
all who have undertaken to interpret the Scriptures while 
ignorant of its antiquities, have committed very great and 
very numerous mistakes. 

In order that the student may derive real profit by the 
study of sacred antiquities, it is necessary that he should 
become acquainted with the sources from whence they are 
drawn. These sources are, — 

1. The Scriptures ; because they are, in fact, the testimony 
of the people themselves in regard to events and customs in 
which they were the agents. 

2. Ancient Monuments. These are in a manner living 
testimonies. Such are the triumphal arch of Titus ; the ruins 
of Persepolis ; the subterranean vaults or sepulchres in Syria, 
Palestine, and Egypt, where pyramids, obelisks, and the 
ruins of temples, bear testimony both to the perfection and 
the antiquity of the arts ; and the ruins of Babylon, Nineveh, 
and Palmyra. These illustrate what occurs in the Bible 
relative to the edifices of Herod, and the temple of Jerusalem 
in the time of our Saviour. 

3. Ancient Greek, Phoenician, Egyptian, and Roman coins ; 
also Jewish coins, with inscriptions in the old Samaritan 
character, and those of a few other nations. 

4 Contemporary writers. Such, for instance, as the works 
of Philo the Jew and Josephus ; the former of whom resided 
in Egypt, and the latter at first in Judea, and subsequently 
in Rome. Ancient Greek and Latin authors, particularly 
Herodotus, Xenophon, Arrian, Strabo, Plutarch, Diodorus 
Siculus, and almost all others of that age. 

5. The Mishna, or the text of the Talmud, a collection of 
traditions made very nearly between the years 190 and 220, 
accompanied by the explanations of the Jerusalem and 
Babylonian Gemaras. 



124 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

6. Ecclesiastical writers who lived in Syria or other 
oriental countries, particularly Jerome and Ephraim Syrus; 
also some Syriac and Arabic books, especially the most 
ancient. Finally, the journals of modern travellers who have 
visited the East, marked the appearances of the country, 
and given an account of the manners and customs of the 
inhabitants. 



CHAPTER I. 

DOMESTIC ARCHEOLOGY. 

Dwellings. 

In the primitive condition of society men lived in plains, 
valleys, and on mountains, under the open sky, or under the 
shade of trees, or in the clefts of rocks or caves. The inhabi- 
tants of Arabia Petraea, and the Troglodytes of Palestine, 
and all those who are nomadic in their habits, thus dwelt 
without a fixed habitation, except what nature afforded. 

Tabernacles. 

As caves could not always be readily found, and as it was 
sometimes great labour to excavate one, men were compelled 
by the exigencies of their situation to form some other sort 
of residence. The shady trees, whose tops approached each 
other and were intertwined, suggested the idea of cutting down 
large branches, fixing them in the ground in parallel lines, 
binding them together at the top, and covering them with 
leaves, plants, reeds, branches, and even broad flat stones, 
in order to shield themselves from the cold, the heat, and 
the dew. Thus they built tabernacles, huts, or lodges. The 
Romans called them mappalia. They were small and low 
in the beginning, so that a person could not stand erect, but 
was obliged either to lie down or to sit ; but afterwards were 
built higher. The use of these tabernacles did not cease 






BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 125 

even after the erection of more stable and convenient 
buildings. These rude dwellings are to this day erected by 
the nomades and wandering tribes of Mesopotamia. 

Tents, 

As tabernacles could not readily be moved from place to 
place, and from a want of materials could not everywhere be 
built, being partly made of skins, the design arose of erecting 
a shelter wholly of skins, extended round a pole, and so 
light as to be easily moved from one place to another. 
Jabal, it is supposed, made tents of this kind. In the prog- 
ress of years they were no longer covered with skins, but 
with various kinds of cloth, particularly linen. The nomades 
of the east still use them. They pitch them in any place 
which appears suitable, but they give the preference to a 
spot near some shady tree. 

The first tents which were made were undoubtedly 
round in their construction and small in size; afterwards 
they were made larger and oblong. The nomades of Arabia 
Petraea have two kinds, the one larger the other smaller. 
Genesis xxxiii, 17. 

The Arabians take pleasure in pitching their tents on hills, 
in such a way as to form a circular encampment. When 
thus pitched, being of a dark hue, in consequence of being 
covered with a cloth made of goat's hair, they present a 
beautiful appearance to the distantly-approaching traveller. 
Cant, i, 5. The flocks and cattle are driven by night into 
the enclosed area, and protected by dogs. Job xxx, 1. 
Some one of the shepherds keeps watch during the night. 
This duty is performed alternately. Isaiah lvi, 9-11. The 
tent of the Emir or chief is placed in the centre, and is larger 
than the rest. 

The larger kind of tents are divided by curtains into three 
parts, as was done also in the holy tabernacle. In the 
external division or apartment the servants lodge, and 
during the night the young animals also, to prevent their 



126 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

sucking the dam. In the second apartment are the males. 
The third or interior apartment is allotted to the women. 
Numbers xxv, 8. The nomades, who are less jealous than the 
inhabitants of the cities, watch the other sex less scrupulously. 
Genesis xii, 15 ; xviii, 6-9 ; xxxiv, 1, 2. The bottom of the 
tent is either covered with mats or carpets, and on these 
they are in the habit of sitting. The chiefs and more wealthy 
have coverlets, pillows, &c, made of costly materials, on 
which they repose at night. The utensils of the nomades 
are few; they have vessels of shell and brass, viz., pots, 
kettles, and cups of brass, covered elegantly with tin, also 
leathern bags. Their hearth is on the ground ; it consists 
of three stones, placed so as to form a triangle. In the 
middle of them is a small excavation of the earth, where the 
fire is kindled, and the vessels placed over it upon the stones. 
The table consists of a round skin spread upon the floor of 
the tent. Clothing and military arms are hung upon nails 
in the poles of the tent. 

Houses. 

In the progress of time, as tabernacles became larger, and 
were defended against the injuries of the weather by broad 
stones and earth heaped against them, it was found that 
dwellings could be made of stones alone and moist earth or 
clay. A want of stones in some places gave occasion for the 
formation of tiles, which were made by reducing a body of 
clay to shape, and hardening it in the sun or burning it in 
fire. " These ancient attempts are mentioned in Genesis. 
In Deut. viii, 12, mention is made of elegant houses; 
and in xxvii, 2-4, the use of limestone is spoken of as if it 
were common and well known. 

Houses at first were small, afterwards larger, especially in 
extensive cities, the capitals of empires. The art of multi- 
plying stories in a building is very ancient, as we may gather 
from the construction of Noah's ark and the Tower of Babel. 
The houses in Babylon, according to Herod., (lib. i, sec. 180,) 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 127 

were three and four stories high ; and those in Thebes or 
Diospolis, in Egypt, four or five stories. Consult Diod. Sic, 
lib. i, chap. 45. They appear to have been low in the 
time of Joshua, in Palestine. Jeremiah praises houses of good 
form and architecture. In the time of Christ, the houses of 
the rich and powerful were splendid, and built according to 
the rules of Grecian architecture. 

Many of the larger houses were tetragonal in form, and 
enclosed a square area. The roofs of the houses were flat, 
such as are still seen in the East. They were formed of 
earth heaped together, or, in the houses of the rich, of a 
firmly constructed flooring made of coals broken up, stones, 
ashes, chalk, and gypsum, reduced to a solid substance by 
application of blows. The declivity of the roof from the 
centre to the extremity is very small, scarcely an inch in ten 
feet. On these roofs, which are covered with earth, plants 
sometimes spring up ; but they soon perish with the heat of 
the sun. The Orientals often ascend these roofs to enjoy a 
purer air, or to witness an event which happens in the 
neighbourhood. In the summer they sleep upon them, but 
not without a covering. They even erect tents and taber- 
nacles upon them, and spread their flax and cotton there to 
be dried in the sun. They ascend their roofs to talk with 
persons privately, to witness a public solemnity, to mourn 
publicly, and to announce anything to the multitude, to pray 
to God, and to perform sacrifices. 2 Samuel xi, 2, 6, 7 ; 
Isaiah xxii, 1 ; Matthew xxiv, 17; Mark xiii, 15 ; Joshua 
ii, 6 ; 1 Samuel ix, 25 ; Judges xvi, 26, 27 ; Isaiah xv, 3 ; 
Jeremiahxix, 13 ; xlviii, 38 ; Matthew x, 27 ; Acts x, 9. 

The roofs are surrounded by a breastwork or balustrade, 
to prevent one from falling. On the side next a neighbour's 
house it is not so high, for the purpose of allowing the oc- 
cupants to pass from one to another. This railing was 
required by the law of Moses. Deut. xxii, 8. It was this 
which the men demolished, (Mark ii, 4 ; Luke* v, 19,) that 
they might let down the paralytic. 



128 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

The gate of the house, or door opening to the streets, is in 
the middle of the front side of the house. The gates, not 
only of houses but of cities, were usually adorned with the 
inscription which, according to Deut. vi, 9 ; xi, 20, was to be 
extracted from the law of Moses, a practice in which may be 
found the origin of the modern mauzan, or piece of parch- 
ment inscribed with Deut. vi, 5-9; xi, 13-20, and fastened 
to the door-post. The gates or doors were always shut, and 
one of the servants acted as porter. Acts xii, 13 ; John xviii, 
16, 17. The space immediately inside the gate is called the 
porch. It is square, and on one side of it is erected a seat 
for the accommodation of strangers, who are not admitted 
into the interior of the house. Near this porch are the 
stairs which lead to the upper story and roof of the house. 
Matthew xxiv, 16, 17. From the porch we are introduced 
through a second door into the quadrangular area, or court, 
which is denominated the centre. 2 Samuel xvii, 18; Luke 
v, 19. The court is usually paved with marble of various 
kinds. In the centre of it sometimes there is a fountain. 
The court is generally surrounded on all sides with a 
cloister, peristyle, or covered walk, over which,, if the house 
has more than one story, is a gallery of the same dimensions, 
supported by columns and protected by a balustrade. 
Hence occur so many allusions to columns. Psalm lxxv, 3 ; 
Proverbs ix, 1; Galatiansii, 9; 1 Timothy iii, 15. Large 
companies are received into the court, as at nuptials, circum- 
cisions, &c. Esther i, 5; Luke v, 19. On such occasions a 
large veil of thick cloth is extended by ropes over the whole 
of it, forming an awning to exclude the heat of the sun. 
Psalm civ, 2. The veil, or curtain, of the area, is called in 
the New Testament arkyi). Luke vii, 6; Mark ii, 4. The 
back part of the house is allotted to the women, called in 
the Arabic the harem, and in the Hebrew, by way of 
eminence, the palace. The door is always kept locked, and 
is opened onjy when the master of the house wishes to enter. 
2 Kings xv, 25 ; Proverbs xviii, 19. White eunuchs guard 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 129 

the door externally, but maids and black eunuchs only are 
permitted to serve within. The latter are great favourites 
with their masters. Isaiah xxxii, 14 ; Jeremiah xiii, 23 ; 
2 Kings xv, 25. Behind the harem there is a garden, into 
which the women enjoy the pleasure of looking from their 
small but lofty apartments. The chambers are large and 
spacious, and so constructed as to extend round the whole 
of the open court. The doors of the chambers open in the 
first story into the cloisters, and in the second story into the 
gallery. 

The Hebrews, at a very ancient period, had not only sum- 
mer and winter rooms, but palaces. Judges iii, 20 ; 1 Kings 
vii, 2-6; Amos iii, 15; Jeremiah xxxvi, 32. The houses 
or palaces, so called, expressly made for summer, were large, 
and, in point of altitude, did not yield much to our churches. 
The lower stories were frequently under ground. The front 
of these buildings faced the north, so as to secure the advan- 
tage of the breezes. They were paved with marble. They 
were supplied with a current of fresh air by ventilators, 
which were perforations in the northern wall and on the top 
of the building, resembling turrets, which received the air 
and conveyed it below. One apartment worthy of notice 
extended from the interior of the front side into the court, 
sometimes a considerable distance beyond the cloisters and 
galleries. Its roof was supported by two columns only, and 
the front of it had no wall. In this apartment princes re- 
ceived ambassadors, transacted business, and dispensed jus- 
tice. The temple of Dagon, which was destroyed by Sam- 
son, was of similar construction. It was in an apartment 
like this, in Herod's palace, where the Saviour seems to have 
been tried before Pilate. In the winter rooms and houses 
the windows face the south, in order to have the advantage 
of a southern exposure. They were not furnished with 
stoves and fire-places, as among us. The coals and wood 
are placed in a vessel which occupies a place in the center 
of the paved floor, and the smoke escapes through the win- 



130 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

dows. Isaiah xiv, 16; xlvii, 14. All the rooms in the up- 
per story may be called viTepocjv ; but this applies more ap- 
propriately to the chamber over the porch, which opens by a 
door directly upon the roof, being generally a story higher 
than the other part of the house. This is a place for retire- 
ment, devotion, &c. Strangers are frequently lodged in it. 
1 Kings xvii, 19 ; 2 Kings iv, 10; xxiii, 12 ; Acts ix, 37-39. 

The doors were valves, suspended and moved by pivots of 
wood which projected from the ends of the two folds, both 
above and below. The upper pivots, which were the longest, 
were inserted in sockets sufficiently large to receive them in 
the lintel ; the lower ones were received, in a corresponding 
manner, in the threshold. The doors were fastened by a lock, 
Prov. xxvi, 14; or by a bar. Job xxxviii, 10; Deut. iii, 5; 
Judges xvi, 3. These bars were commonly of wood. Those 
made of iron and brass were used as a security to the gates 
of fortified places, or of valuable repositories. Isaiah xlv, 2. 
The lock was nothing more than a wood slide attached to 
one of the folds, which entered into a hole in the door-post, 
and was secured there by teeth cut into it. Two strings 
passed through an orifice leading outside the door. A man 
going out, by means of one of these strings moved the slide 
into its place in the post, where it was fastened so among 
the teeth as not to be drawn back. The one coming in, who 
wished to unlock, had a wooden key sufficiently large and 
crooked, like a sickle. This was thrust through the orifice 
of the door or keyhole, lifted up the slide so as to extricate 
it from the teeth or catches, and by means of the other string 
the bolt was drawn back and the door opened. The rich 
and powerful had keys made of metal, adorned with ivory 
handles. The keyhole was sometimes as large as to admit 
a person's finger, and sometimes doors were opened in that 
way. Solomon's Song v, 4. 

The windows look from the front chambers into the court, 
and from the female apartments into the garden. Occasion- 
ally a window is seen looking towards the street, but it is 






BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 131 

guarded by a trellis, and is thrown open only on public fes- 
tivities. Judges v, 28 ; Proverbs vii, 6 ; 2 Kings ix, 30 ; 
Solomon's Song ii, 9. The windows are large, extending 
almost to the floor. They are wide, not set with glass, but 
latticed. In the winter they are protected by thin veils, or 
by valves. 2 Kings xiii, 17; 1 Kings vii, 17; Solomon's 
Song ii, 9. Over the windows are nails adorned with beau- 
tiful heads, and not only sustain curtains by means of a rod 
extending from one to the other, but are themselves great 
ornaments. Hence the propriety of those illustrations drawn 
from nails. Isaiah xxii, 23 ; Zechariah x, 4; Eccles. xii, 11. 



Household Furniture, 

In the most ancient periods these were the most few and 
simple. A hand-mill, and some sort of an oven to bake in, 
could not, of course, be dispensed with. Subsequently, do- 
mestic utensils were multiplied in the form of pots, kettles, 
leathern bottles, plates, cups, and pitchers. The floors were 
covered with mats or carpets, and supplied also, for the pur- 
poses of rest, with a sort of mattresses, of thick, coarse mate- 
rials. Judges iv, 18. Bolsters, which were more valuable, 
were stuffed with wool, or some soft substance. Ezekiel xiii, 
18-21. The poorer class made use of skins, merely for the 
purposes to which these mattresses and bolsters were applied. 
The beds were sometimes placed on a sort of gallery against 
the wall. The Hebrews had another sort of beds, adorned 
with ivory, resembling the Persian sofas, having backs and 
sides, six feet long, three broad, and, like the divans, nine 
inches high. Amos vi, 4 ; Psalm xli, 3 ; cxxxii, 3. To pre- 
vent, as much as possible, the mats and carpets from being 
soiled, it was not lawful to wear shoes or sandals into the 
room ; they were left at the door. Hence it was not nec- 
essary that the room should be often swept. Matt, xii, 44. 
Lamps were fed with olive oil, and were kept burning all 
night. Job xviii, 5, 6; xxi, 17; Proverbs xiii, 9; xx, 20; 



132 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

xxiv, 20; xxxi, 18. We may infer from the golden lamp 
of the tabernacle, that those of the opulent were splendid. 

Villages, Towns, Cities. 

A number of tents or cottages together were called villa- 
ges. From these they increased, in progress of time, to 
towns and cities. The Hebrews, in the time of David, had 
large cities. Jerusalem must have been large, to accommo- 
date the three millions of people who assembled there 
on the feast of the Passover. The streets were usually nar- 
row, the design of which was to make them shady. The 
market-places were near the gates of a city, sometimes within 
and sometimes without. At these, different kinds of goods 
were exposed for sale. In the days of Christ, markets were 
held in an arched street. These streets were large, and fur- 
nished with gates. Aqueducts were common in oriental 
cities, ruins of which are still found. The people of the 
east metaphorically ascribe the character of females to cities. 
They represent them as mothers of the inhabitants ; they 
speak of them as wives of the kings; and when they revolt 
against their sovereign they are adulteresses. 



Shepherds. 

Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and their posterity, were shep- 
herds until they entered Canaan. The JSTomades, or shep- 
herds of the east, possess vast flocks, large tracts of land, and 
numerous servants. The masters, or chief shepherds, always 
go armed, and spend their time in hunting, in the oversight 
of their affairs, and in predatory excursions. Part of the 
servants are armed, in order to keep from the flocks robbers 
and wild beasts. Part have only a staff and a pouch, which 
were anciently the whole property of travellers, and those 
who were not rich, except that instead of a pouch they car- 
ried a somewhat larger sack. 2 Kings iv, 42 ; 1 Samuel xvii, 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 133 

40-43 ; Psalm xxiii, 4 ; Micah vii, 14 ; Matthew x, 10 ; Luke 
ix, 3 ; x, 4. In the Bible Icings are called shepherds. The 
term was applied to God, who was the King of the Hebrews, 
and as a shepherd guided and protected his flock, so He 
guided and protected Israel. Psalm xxiii, 1-4 ; Isaiah xl, 1 1 ; 
lxiii, 11 ; Jeremiah x, 21 ; xxiii, 1 ; xxxi, 10 ; 1, 6 ; li, 23 ; 
Micah v, 5 ; Nahum iii, 18 ; Ezekiel xxxiv, 2-18 ; xxxvii, 24 ; 
Zechariah xi, 15. In the New Testament it is applied to 
teachers of the Jews; those who presided in synagogues; 
also to Christian teachers. Ephesiansiv, 11 ; Matthew ix, 36 ; 
John x, 12-14 ; Hebrews xiii, 20 ; 1 Peter ii, 25 ; v, 4. 



Pastures. 

The pastures t of the JVomades, or shepherds, were the vast 
deserts or wildernesses, which could not be monopolized by 
any individual, but were open to all shepherds alike. After 
the occupation of Palestine, there was open to the Israelites 
not only the vast desert of Judah, but many other deserts. 
This accounts for what we may gather from the Scriptures 
in relation to the great wealth of the Hebrew Nomades. 
2 Samuel xvii, 27, et seq. ; xix, 32 ; 1 Samuel xxv; 1 Chron. 
xxvii, 29-31. Compare Isaiah lxv, 10; Jeremiah ], 19. 

The shepherds occupy almost the same positions every year. 
In the summer they go north, or on the mountains ; in the 
winter they go south, in the valleys. The flocks live night 
and day under the open sky, and this exposure renders their 
wool finer than if confined in sheep-cotes. 



Fountains and Cisterns. 

Water was scarce in the deserts; hence it was highly 
valued. Job xxii, 7; Numbers xx, 17-19; Deuteronomy ii, 
6-28. The Nomades dug wells and cisterns, at certain dis- 
tances, which they concealed to prevent others from stealing 
the water. They occasioned great contention. Gen. xxi, 25 ; 



134 MANUAL VF BIBLICAL LITEKATUKE. 

xxvi, 13-22. Fountains were common to all. If they flow 
all the year they are denominated faithful ; if they dry up 
in the summer, deceitful. Job vi, 15-22 ; Isaiah xxxviii, 16 ; 
Jeremiah xv, 18. Wells belonged to those persons who dug 
them. Sometimes they were owned by a number of shep- 
herds in common, where their flocks were admitted to drink 
in regular order. Genesis xxix, 3-12 ; xxiv, 11-15 ; Exodus 
ii, 16; Judges v, 11. The waters of wells and fountains 
are called living waters, and are much esteemed. Leviticus 
xiv, 5-50 ; Numbers xix, 17. Hence they are made a sym- 
bol of prosperity, and God himself is compared to a fountain 
of living waters. Isaiah xliii, 19, 20 ; xlix, 10 ; Jeremiah 
ii, 13; xvii, 13; Psalm lxxxvii, 7; Joel iii, 18; Ezekiel 
xlvii, 1, et seq.; Zechariah xiv, 18. 

Cisterns were the property of those by whom they were 
made. These were sometimes made so large as to cover an 
acre of ground, having a small mouth. They were filled 
with rain-water and snow during the winter, and then closed 
with flat stones, over which was spread sand to prevent their 
discovery. Sometimes these are destroyed by earthquakes, 
and other casualties, and whole flocks perish in consequence. 
A failure of water is used in Scripture to denote a great ca- 
lamity. Isaiah xli, 17, 18 ; xliv, 3. There is a large depo- 
sition of mud at the bottom of these cisterns ; and whoever 
falls into them, when they are empty of water, dies a mise- 
rable death. Genesis xxxvii, 22; Jeremiah xxxviii, 6; Lam. 
iii, 53 ; Psalms xl, 2, lxix, 15. They were sometimes used 
as prisons. Genesis xxxix, 20; xl, 15. 

Flocks of the Nomades. 

These consisted of goats and sheep. The sheep are horned, 
and commonly white. Psalms cxlvii, 16; Isaiah i, 18; 
Daniel vii, 9. Black ones are very rare ; some are spotted, 
others are streaked ; and others, again, are distinguished by 
variegated hoofs. Gen. xxx, 32-34; xxxi, 10-12. The 



BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 135 

sheep mentioned in Ezekiel xxvii, 18, whose wool is of a 
bright brown, inclining to a gray, are found in Caramania. 
They are also distinguished by other varieties, such as com- 
mon, deformed, superior, &c. The Nomades give to their 
sheep titles of endearment, and the ram that is called out 
by his master marches before the flock; hence the rulers 
of the people are called leaders of the flock, Jeremiah xxv, 
34, 35 ; 1, 8 ; Isaiah xiv, 9 ; Zechariah x, 3. The Arabians 
have certain terms by which they can call the sheep either 
to drink or to be milked. The sheep know the voice of the 
shepherd, and go at his bidding. Sometimes a lamb is 
brought into the tent, and trained like a dog. 2 Samuel xii, 3 ; 
Jeremiah xi, 19. Before the shearing, the sheep are col- 
lected into an uncovered enclosure. John x, 11-16. The 
object of this is, that the wool may be rendered finer by the 
sweating and evaporation which would result from their be- 
ing crowded together. Numbers xxxii, 16, 24, 36; 2 Sam- 
uel vii, 8 ; Zephaniah ii, 6. Sheep-shearings were great 
festivals. 1 Samuel xxv, 2-4 ; xviii, 36 ; 2 Samuel xiii, 23. 
Goats are of a black colour ; sometimes parti-coloured. They 
live under the open sky, with this exce'ption only, that the 
kids are sometimes taken into the tent to keep them from 
sucking the dam. Their milk is more precious than any 
other. Proverbs xxvii, 27. Their flesh and hair are also 
valuable. Bottles are made of their skins. Those for hold- 
ing water have the hairy side of the skin external, and those 
for wine the reverse. 

Geese, hens, and swine were not known among the domes- 
tic animals of the Nomades. At a somewhat recent period, 
hens, in some places, were raised by the Hebrews. A hen 
that does not hatch eggs is spoken of by Jeremiah xvii, 1 1 ; 
and in the time of Christ, when Peter denied his Master, the 
cock crew in JerusaLem. 






136 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Animals of the Ox kind.* 

These animals are smaller in oriental countries than among 
us, and are distinguished by certain protuberances on the 
back, directly over the fore-feet. They were also possessed 
by the JSTomades, though they were used chiefly for agricul- 
tural purposes. Herdsmen were held in lower estimation 
than keepers of flocks, but they possessed the richest pas- 
tures in Bashan, Sharon, and Achion. The oxen and bulls 
of Bashan, which were strong and ferocious, were used as 
symbols of ferocious enemies. Psalm xxii, 12; lxviii, 31; 
Isaiah xxxiv, 7; Deuteronomy xxxiii, 17; Proverbs xiv, 4. 
Heifers were symbolic of matrons. Amos iv, 1 ; Hosea 
iv, 15, 16; x, 11; Jeremiah xlvi, 20. The horns of bulls 
and goats and oxen were used tropically to express power. 
Psalm lxxv, 10 ; Ixxxix, 17-24 ; xcii, 10 ; Amos vi, 13 ; Jer- 
emiah xlviii, 25 ; Lam. ii, 3 ; Ezekiel xxix, 21 ; Daniel vii, 
7, 8, 24 ; viii, 3-5 ; Luke i, 69. If the horns are represented 
as made of brass or iron, the strength and power is insuper- 
able. 1 Kings xxii, .11; 1 Chronicles xviii, 10; Micah iv, 
13-16. Hence the ancient coins represent kings with horns. 
Oxen were yoked together to draw carts and ploughs, and 
the Nomades transported goods on their backs, as they did 
on camels. The milk of the cows was nutritive, and of this 
they frequently made cheese. < In the Bible there is no men- 
tion made of butter. That which in the Vulgate is ren- 
dered butter, was nothing more than a drink. Olive oil was 
used instead of butter. 



She-asses are considered the most valuable, on account of 
the colts. The Nomades possessed a great number of these 
animals ; and in the east, if rightly trained up, they are not 

• Those animals in Scripture called oxen, were bulls, as the 
law did not allow castration. 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 137 

only patient and diligent, but active and beautiful in appear- 
ance. Their name is used tropically in the Scriptures for act- 
ive and industrious men. Genesis xlix, 14. Their colour is 
red, inclining to a brown. Some are parti-coloured. They 
are sometimes used for turning mills. Matthew xviii, 6. 
Moses passed a law that the ox and ass should not be used 
together in ploughing. Anciently, princes and great men 
rode on asses. Genesis xxii, 3-5 ; 1 Samuel xxv, 20-23 ; 
1 Kings ii, 40 ; xiii, 13 ; Zechariah ix, 9 ; Matthew xxi, 1-7 ; 
Luke xix, 29, 36; John xii, 12-16. Horses were used al- 
most exclusively for war. They were saddled and bridled. 
Mules are spoken of in the age of David, and were probably 
known in the time of Moses. They were brought to the 
Hebrews from other nations. Wild asses are of a fine figure 
and rapid motion, frequenting desert places, and fleeing far 
from the abodes of men. They can scent waters at a great 
distance, and thirsty travellers often follow them. 

Camels. 

Camels are of two kinds. The Turkish is distinguished by 
having two protuberances on the back. This kind is. large 
and strong, carrying from eight to fifteen hundred pounds, but 
is impatient of the heat. The other kind, called the drome- 
dary, or Arabian camel, has but one bunch on the back, is 
more rapid in its movements, and endures the heat, better 
than the other camel. Camels require but little food, and 
can endure thirst from sixteen to forty days. The INomades 
and Arabs are esteemed of secondary rank if they do not 
possess them. Genesis xxiv, 10, 64; xxxi, 17; 1 Chronicles 
v, 19-21 ; Jeremiah xlix, 29. Compare 1 Samuel xxx, 17 ; 
1 Kings x, 2 ; Isaiah xxx, 6 ; Ezekiel xxv, 4. They are used 
for the transportation of all kinds of merchandise. The ISTo- 
mades drink the milk of camels ; when it becomes sour it 
intoxicates. Judges iv, 19 ; v, 25. They also feed upon the 
flesh, which was interdicted to the Hebrews. Leviticus xi, 4. 
The hair is manufactured into cloth. Matthew hi, 4. 



138 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Horses. 

We find horses in Egypt. Genesis xlvii, 17; xlix, 17; 
Exodus ix, 3 ; xiv, 6, 28 ; Job xxxix, 19. Joshua encountered 
chariots and horsemen in the north of Palestine. Anciently, 
horses were used exclusively for war ; hence they are opposed 
to asses, which were used in times of peace. The Hebrews 
first attended to the raising of horses in the time of Solomon, 
who carried on a great trade in Egyptian horses. A horse 
was estimated at about one hundred and fifty, and a chariot 
at six hundred shekels. The women rarely rode on horse- 
back; but whenever they did, it was in the same manner 
with the men. They were not shod with iron until the 
ninth century. 

Dogs. 

The Nomades found use for these animals, in watching 
and driving their flocks. Frequent as they are in oriental 
cities, they were universally abhorred, with the exception of 
the hunting dogs. Hence, to be called a dog is a cutting 
reproach, full of bitter contempt. Job xxx, 1 ; 1 Samuel 
xvii, 43 ; 2 Kings viii, 13 ; Proverbs xxvi, 11. Compare Luke 
xvi, 21 ; 2 Peter ii, 22. The appellation of dead dog indi- 
cates imbecility ; that of dumb dog, unfaithfulness. The re- 
ward of prostitution is called dog's hire. The Jews, in the 
time of Christ, called the Gentiles dogs. Their character and 
habits illustrate many passages of Scripture. 

Hunting. 

Moses enacted laws on the subject of hunting, the object 
of which was to preserve the wild animals of Palestine. 
Exodus xxiii, 1 1 ; Leviticus xxv, 6, 7 ; Deuteronomy xxii, 
6, 7. The implements of hunting were the same as those 
of war, viz., the bow and arrow, spear and lance, a javelin 
and sword. Hunters employed nets, in which lions were 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 139 

taken ; likewise gins, snares, and pitfalls, which were excava- 
ted especially for lions. A pole was inserted in the centre, 
with a lamb attached to it, which would cause the lion to 
spring upon it, and, falling through the slight covering, he 
could be easily taken. These instruments and modes of 
warfare are used tropically to indicate the wiles of an ad- 
versary and great danger. Psalms ix, 16; lvii, 6 ; xciv, 13 ; 
cxix, 85 ; Proverbs xxvi, 27 ; Isaiah xxiv, 17 ; xlii, 22 ; Jer- 
emiah v, 27 ; vi, 21 ; xviii, 22 ; xlviii, 14 ; Luke xxi, 35 ; Ro- 
mans xi, 9. Death is represented as a hunter, armed with 
his net, javelin, or sling, with which he takes and slays 
men. 

Agriculture — Its Value and Importance* 

Agriculture, as well as the keeping of flocks and herds 
in the primitive ages, was a principal employment among 
men. Genesis ii, 15 ; iii, 17-19 ; iv, 2. Noah, after the Del- 
uge, bestowed attention upon it. Babylon and Egypt owed 
their wealth and power chiefly to this source. The Hebrews 
learned the value of this art while in Egypt. Moses made 
agriculture the basis of the State. To every citizen he ap- 
portioned a certain quantity of land, and gave them the 
right of transmitting it to their heirs. This land could not 
be alienated for any longer period than the coming jubilee, 
and thus land monopolies were prevented. The land could 
be redeemed at any time by paying the amount of profits 
up to the year of jubilee. A tax of two-tenths of the in- 
come was to be paid annually unto God, as their king. Le- 
viticus xxvii, 30 ; Deuteronomy xii, 17-19 ; xiv, 22-29. The 
custom of marking the land by stones, although it prevailed 
a long time before Job, was confirmed and perpetuated by 
Moses, and a curse was pronounced against him who, with- 
out authority, removed them. The land of Palestine was 
divided by Joshua, not only among the tribes, but each in- 
dividual had his portion measured off to him. All who 
were not set apart for religious duties, such as the priests and 



140 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Levites, whether inhabitants of towns or the country, were 
considered by the law as agriculturists or husbandmen. 
None were so rich or noble as to disdain to put their hands 
to the plough. 1 Samuel xi, 1 ; 1 Kings xix, 19. Compare 
2 Chronicles xxvi, 10. 

The soil of Palestine is very fruitful if the dews and vernal 
and autumnal rains are not withheld. The Hebrews in- 
creased its richness in a variety of ways. They not only 
divested it of stones, but watered it by means of canals, and 
thereby imparted to their fields the richness of gardens. 
The soil was enriched, also, by means of ashes, to which the 
straw, the stubble, the husks, the brambles and grass that 
overspread the land during the Sabbatical year were reduced 
by fire, and finally the soil was manured with dung. 



Different kinds of Grain. 

The Hebrew word which is translated variously by the 
English words grain, corn, &c, is of general signification, 
and comprehends wheat, millet, spelt, wall-barley, beans, 
lentils, meadow-cumin, pepper wort, flax, and cotton. To 
these may be added various species of the cucumber, and 
perhaps rice. Barley, mixed with broken straw, affords food 
for beasts of burden. Wheat grew in Egypt in the time of 
Joseph, as it now does in Africa, on stalks, each one of 
which produced an ear. With us this is called corn. Cot- 
ton grows not only on trees of a large size, but on shrubs. 
It is enclosed in the nuts of the tree and the pods of the 
shrub. 

Instruments of Agriculture. 

At first the soil was cultivated by means of sharp sticks. 
These were succeeded by spades and shovels, and subse- 
quently by ploughs. All these implements were well known 
in the time of Moses. The first plough was a forked limb 
of a tree, one of which forks was longer than the other. 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 141 

The shorter piece was sharpened, which, being turned into 
the ground, made the furrows. At the end of the longer 
was a transverse beam, to which the oxen were harnessed. 
To this a handle was attached, by which the plough was 
guided. The harrow was composed of a heavy piece of 
wood, on which the driver sat and passed over the ploughed 
field. The ox beneath the yoke afforded metaphors of sub- 
jugation. Hosea x, 11 ; Isaiah ix, 4 ; x, 27 ; Jeremiah v, 5 ; 
xxvii, 2, 8, 12; xxx, 8; Nahum i, 13; Psa. cxxix, 3, 4; 
Matthew xi, 29, 30. When it was prohibited by law to sow, 
either in field or vineyard, seed of a mixed kind, and crops 
of this nature became sacred — i. e., were given to the priests — 
the seed-grain was carefully cleansed from all mixture of tares, 
so often spoken of, and which in the New Testament are called 
ty^aviov. The beverage formed by boiling water and tares 
was called poison water, because it intoxicated and was inju- 
rious to the mind. Deut. xxix, 18, 19 ; Psa. lxix, 21 ; Jer. 
viii, 14; xxiii, 15; Hosea x, 4. Such were their injurious 
qualities that they are properly said to have been sown by 
an enemy while the labourers were indulging in sleep at noon. 
Matt. xiii,^5, 40. 

Harvest. 

In Palestine the crops are as far advanced in the month 
of February as they are here in the month of May. Some- 
times the crops are blasted by frost, and sometimes they are 
so annoyed by easterly winds as to turn yellow and never 
come to maturity. This is called mildew. Deut. xxviii, 22 ; 
Amos iv, 9 ; Hag. ii, IT. The crops in the southern part of 
Palestine, and in the plains, come to maturity about the 
middle of April ; but in the northern and mountainous regions 
they are two or three weeks later. The cultivated fields 
were guarded by watchmen, who sat upon a seat hung in a 
tree or on a watch-tower made of planks, to keep off birds, 
quadrupeds, or thieves. It was lawful for travellers to take 
ears from another's field and eat, but they were not to use 



142 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

the sickle. Deut. xxiii, 25. The second day of the Passover, 
which was the sixteenth day after the new moon of April, 
the first handful of ripe barley was carried to the altar, and 
then the harvest commenced. John iv, 35. Harvest con- 
tinued from the Passover to the Pentecost, a period of seven 
weeks. The reapers were masters, children, men-servants, 
maidens, and mercenaries. Ruth ii, 4, 8, 21, 23 ; John iv, 
36 ; James v, 4. It was a time of great rejoicing. A rich 
harvest was attributed to the beneficence of Providence, 
while sterility was considered as a judgment. Sickles were 
used. When the wheat was cut down, it was bound and 
carried away to a convenient place in the field. The glean- 
ings were left for the poor. The land yielded thirty, sixty, 
and a hundred-fold. 

Threshing-Floor. 

This was in the field, where the bundles had been carried 
after being bound. Here the ground was levelled and beaten 
down. Gen. 1, 10; 2 Sam. xxiv, 16, 24; Judges vi, 37. 
The assemblages of bundles in the floor for threshing, was 
used figuratively to denote reservation for future destruction. 
Micah iv, 13; Isa. xxi, 10; Jer. Ii, 33. At first the grain 
was beaten out with flails ; at a later period it was trodden 
out by oxen, or beaten out with machines, such as are used 
in the East at the present day. Threshing is used figura- 
tively to denote great slaughter. The victors are represented 
as huge machines that thresh and crumble even the moun- 
tains ; while the victims are represented by the bundles on 
the threshing-floor, ground to pieces by th^ instruments. 
Judges viii, 7 ; 2 Samuel xii, 31 ; Amos i, 3 ; Mic. iv, 12, 13. 
In Deut. xxv, 4, it was forbidden to muzzle the ox that was 
treading out the corn. Compare 1 Cor. ix, 9-12; 1 Tim. 
v, 18. And the cattle which drew the threshing machine 
were allowed to eat at pleasure. 

After the grain was threshed out it was thrown into a 
heap in the centre of the floor, and being elevated by a fork, 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 143 

it was exposed to an artificial current of wind, which blew 
away the chaff and allowed the wheat to fall to the ground. 
This operation was symbolical of the dispersion of a van- 
quished people, and also of the separation between the 
righteous and the wicked. Isa. xli, 15, 16; Jer. xiii, 24; 
xv, 7 ; li, 2 ; Job xxi, 18 ; Psa. i, 4 ; xxxv, 5, viii, 13 ; Matt, 
iii, 12 ; Luke hi, 17. That part of the straw which was not 
used for fodder and the manufacturing of brick, was burned, 
and this afforded a figurative illustration of the destruction 
of the wicked. Isa. v, 24; xlvii, 14; Joel ii, 5; Obad. 18; 
Nahum i, 10 ; Jer. xv, 7 ; Mai. iv, 1 ; Matt, iii, 12. After 
it was thus cleansed, it was put away in granaries. 



Vines and Vineyards. 

In some parts of the East— for instance, on the southern 
shore of the Caspian Sea — vines grow spontaneously, 
producing grapes of a pleasant taste. Mention is made 
of wine at an early period. Genesis ix, 21; xiv, 18; xix, 
32-35; xxvii, 25; xlix, 11, 12. The soil of Palestine 
yielded, in- great quantities, the best of wine. The moun- 
tains of Engedi particularly, and the valleys of Eschol and 
Sorek, were celebrated for their grapes. In a few instances, 
the wine of Mount Libanus and Helbon is extolled in the 
Scriptures. Hosea xiv, 7 ; Ezek. xxvii, 18. Some of the clusters 
grow to the weight of twelve pounds. Num. xiii, 24, 25. The 
grapes of Palestine are mostly red or black, whence origi- 
nated the phrase, blood of grapes. Gen. xlix, 11 ; Deut. 
xxxii, 14; Isa. xxvii, 2. The vine of Sodom is poisonous, 
and its grapes are called poisonous clusters. Vineyards 
were generally planted on the declivity of hills and moun- 
tains. They were sometimes planted in terraces. Vines 
were commonly propagated by suckers, and were of four 
kinds, viz., those that ran on the ground, those that grew 
upright of themselves, those that adhered to a single prop, 
and those that covered a square frame. It is not our design 



144 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

to treat of all these. To sit under one's own vine, tropically 
denotes a peaceful and prosperous life. Jer. v, 11 ; viii, 13 ; 
Hosea ii, 12; Micah iv, 4; Zech. iii, 10. Vineyards were 
defended by a hedge or wall. In the vineyards towers were 
erected, which, at the present time, are thirty feet square 
and eighty feet high. These were erected for watchmen. 
The passing traveller was allowed to pluck grapes by the 
way, though not to carry oif any in a vessel. 

The manner of trimming the vine, and, also the singular 
instrument of the vine-dresser, were well known even in the 
time of Moses. A vintage from new vineyards was forbid- 
den for the first three years, and the grapes of the fourth 
year were consecrated to sacred purposes. Pruning in 
March, April, and May, is mentioned by early writers. The 
Hebrews dug their vineyards and gathered out the stones. 
The young vines, unless trees were at hand, were wound 
around stakes; and around those vines which ran on the 
ground were dug narrow trenches, in a circular form, to pre- 
vent the wandering shoots from mingling with each other. 
In the metaphors drawn from vineyards, these practices must 
be duly considered. Isa. v, 1-7 ; xxvii, 2-6 ; Psa. lxxx, 9-13 ; 
Matt, xxi, 33-46. 

The vintage in Syria commences about the middle of 
September and continues to the middle of November. The 
Hebrews were required to leave gleaning-grapes for the 
poor. The season of vintage was a most joyous one. With 
shoutings on all sides, the grapes were plucked off and carried 
to the wine-press, which was in the vineyard. The presses 
consisted of two receptacles, which were either built of stones 
and plaster, or hewn out of the solid rock. The upper re- 
ceptacle is nearly eight feet square and four high. Into this 
the grapes are thrown, and trodden out by five men. The 
juice flows out into the lower receptacle, through a grated 
aperture made in the side, at the bottom of the larger one. 
Figuratively, vintage gleaning and treading the wine-press 
signified battles and great slaughters. Isa. xvii, 6 ; lxiii, 1-3 ; 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 145 

Jer. xlix, 9 ; Lam. i, 15. The must, as is customary in the 
East, was preserved in large firkins, and buried in the earth. 
Formerly new wine, or must, was preserved in leathern 
bottles, and, lest they should be broken by fermentation, the 
people were careful to have the bottles new. Job xxxii, 19; 
Matt, ix, 17; Mark ii, 22. Sometimes the must was boiled, 
and made into honey. Sometimes the grapes were dried in 
the sun, and were afterwards soaked in wine, and pressed a 
second time, from which was manufactured a sweet wine, 
which was also called new wine — yXevKoq. Acts ii, 13. 



Gardens. 

Gardens were very ancient, and have always been numer- 
ous. In the Scriptures, gardens are denominated from the 
prevalence of certain trees ; as the garden of nuts, and the 
garden of pomegranates. The forest of palms, also, in the 
plain of Jericho, was only a large garden. The Hebrews 
frequently built sepulchres in their gardens. 2 Kings ix, 27 ; 
xxi, 18 ; Mark xv, 46 ; Matt, xxvi, 36 ; John xviii, 1, 2. A 
pleasant region is called "a garden of God." The trees 
which gardens constantly displayed are often figuratively 
used for men. Those which are flourishing and fruitful de- 
note good men; the unfruitful and barren, wicked men. 
Lofty cedars, in particular, are emblems of Icings. Job xxix, 1 9 ; 
Psa. i, 3; xcii, 12-14; Hosea xiv, 6, 7; Jer. xvii, 8; Dan. 
iv, 10-16 ; Luke xxiii, 31 ; Matt, iii, 10 ; vii, 17-20 ; xii, 33 ; 
Ezek. xvii, 3, 4 ; xxxi, 3-13. An assembly of men is com- 
pared to a forest, and a multitude of wicked men to briars. 
Isa. ix, 10 ; x, 19, 33, 34 ; xi, 1. 

Trees. 

The cedar is a large and noble evergreen tree. Its lofty 
height and far-extended branches afford spacious shelter and 
shade. The wood is very valuable ; it is of a reddish colour 
and of an aromatic smell, and reputed incorruptible. The 

7 



146 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

ark of the covenant, much of the temple of Solomon, and 
the temple of Diana, at Ephesus, were built of cedar. This 
tree is much celebrated in Scripture, and is called the glory 
of Lebanon. Tropically, it denotes great strength and sta- 
bility of character. 

The olive has always been a symbol of peace and prosper- 
ity among all nations. It yields an oil which is mentioned 
at an early period by Moses. Palestine is famous for its 
olives. The Mount of Olives derives its name from this tree. 
It is of great beauty, and remains, like the cedar, green all 
winter. Its multiplied branches make it the symbol of a 
numerous progeny. Psa. lii, 8 ; cxxviii, 3 ; Hosea xiv, 6 ; 
Jer. xi, 16, 1*7. It lives about two hundred years, and young 
olives spring up around it when it is dead. One tree will 
sometimes yield one thousand pounds of oil. With this 
article the Hebrews carried on an extensive commerce with 
the Syrians. The berries yielded the best kind of oil. The 
presses for making the oil were of a peculiar form. From 
these the term Gethsemane was derived. This oil was used y 
when mixed with spices, for ointment, and also for sacrifices. 

Fig-trees are very common in Palestine. They flourish 
in a dry and sanely soil. They are not shrubs, but tall and 
leafy. Their shade is grateful. Micah iv, 4. They begin 
to sprout at the time of the vernal equinox. Luke xxi, 29, 30 ; 
Matt, xxiv, 32. The fruit makes its appearance before 
the leaves and flowers. The figs are of three kinds — 1. The 
untimely fig, which puts forth at the vernal equinox, and be- 
fore it is ripe it is called the green fig, but when ripe the 
untimely fig. It comes to maturity the latter part of June, 
and in relish surpasses the other kinds. 2. The summer, or 
dry fig. This appears about the middle of June, and comes 
to maturity in August. 3. The winter fig, which germi- 
nates in August, and ripens about the end of November, 
All figs, when ripe, but especially the untimely, fall sponta- 
neously. Nahum iii, 12. The parable in Luke xiii, 6, et seq., 
is founded in the oriental mode of gardening ; and the method 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 147 

of improving the palm, whose barrenness may be improved, 
is transferred to the fig-tree. 

Sycamore-trees, in size and figure, resemble the mulberry, 
and are very common, not only in Egypt, but in Judea, 
especially the lowlands. Its body is large, and its branches 
numerous, by means of which it is easy of access. Luke 
xix, 4, 5. It is an evergreen. Its wood, which is of a dark 
hue, endures a thousand years. Its fruit does not spring 
from the branches, but from the body of the tree itself. It 
resembles the fig, though it has no seeds. It is very luscious, 
and hence hurtful to the stomach. The fruit does not ripen 
until it is opened, and the milk emitted ; then, when the 
wound grows black, it arrives at maturity. It yields its 
fruit seven times a year. 

The pomegranate grows in Persia, Arabia, Egypt, and Pal- 
estine. It is not tall, and at a little distance from the ground 
it shoots out its branches. Its fruit is beautiful to the eye 
and pleasant to the palate. It is about the size of a large 
apple — two or three inches in diameter — and is encircled at 
the upper part with something resembling a crown. It is 
of a brownish colour, but the interior is yellow. Artificial 
pomegranates were made for ornament. Exodus xxviii, 33, 34 ; 
1 Kings vii, 18. 

Citron and orange-trees were introduced into Palestine 
from Persia, and hence were exotics. 

The balsam is both a fruit and a tree. The odoriferous 
balsam, so salutary in some degree to health, is not gathered 
from the tree in Yemen, called by the Arabic name Abu 
Shamm, but is distilled from a fruit which is indigenous on 
the mountains of Mecca and Medina. It was cultivated at 
a very early period in Gilead, and hence called the Balm 
of Gilead ; and also in the vicinity of Jericho and Engedi. 
Gen. xxxvii, 25 ; xliii, 11 ; Jer. viii, 22 ; xlvi, 11 ; li, 8. There 
are three species of the balsam : two are shrubs, the other 
is a tree. They yield their sap in June, July, and August, 
which is received into an earthen vessel. The fruit, also, 



148 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

when pierced by some instrument, emits a juice of the same 
kind, and in more abundance, but less rich. The sap ex- 
tracted from the body of the tree, or shrub, is called opobaU 
samum ; the juice of the fruit is called carpobalsamum ; and 
the liquid extracted from the branches, when cut off, the 
xylobalsamum. 

The palm-tree is very common in the East, and in Africa. 
It is not cultivated now in Palestine, and hence is rarely 
seen. It requires a skilful hand to make a palm-grove 
flourishing and productive. At a very early period they 
were numerous in Palestine, which we may learn from Lev. 
xxiii, 40; Deut. xxxiv, 3 ; Judg. i, 16 ; hi, 13 ; iv, 5. Also 
from profane writers, and Jewish and Roman coins, which 
exhibit the palm, a sheaf of wheat, and a cluster of grapes, 
as a symbol of the Jewish nation. The palm flourishes most 
in warm climates. It is commonly found most flourshing 
in valleys and plains. Exodus xv, 27. It grows very straight 
and lofty, and is destitute of limbs, except very near the top, 
where it is surmounted with a crown of foliage that is always 
green. The figure of a palm-tree was carved in ornamental 
work, 1 Kings vi, 32 ; and is used tropically of a beautiful 
person, Cant, vii, 8 ; and also of a religious, upright man. 
Psa. i, 3 ; xcii, 12. The dates grow on small stems, which 
germinate at the angles formed by the stock of the tree and 
the branches. Palm-trees exhibit what may be termed a 
sexual distinction ; and in order to any fruit being produced, 
the seed from the flowers of the masculine palm must be 
borne, at the proper season, to the tree of an opposite sex. 
If this is not done, and at the proper time, the female palm, 
like the male, bears no fruit. The productions of the palm 
are large clusters of dates, which become ripe in August, 
September, and October. Some of the dates are eaten in a 
crude state, and the rest are strained through a press woven 
of osiers, and, after the juice is forced out, are reduced 
into solid masses and preserved. The juice pressed out is 
the date wine, and is verv celebrated. At the Feast of 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 149 

Tabernacles, the Hebrews bore palm branches in their hands ; 
they also strewed them in the way before kings, as they en- 
tered their cities on public occasions. The Greeks gave a 
palm branch to those who conquered in the games. Com- 
pare Rev. vii, 9. This tree is regarded among the orientals 
as of all others the most noble. Hence the saying, from the 
branch (i. e., the palm branch) to the rush or reed, ex- 
pressing and denoting the highest and lowest. Isa. ix, 14; 
xix, 15. 

Terebinths are large trees loaded with branches and 
foliage, and green through the year. They live one thousand 
years, and, when they die, leave a scion which spreads a like 
luxuriance of foliage, and lives to a like number of years, so 
that where they once appear they will be perpetuated. On ac- 
count of their perpetuity, places were named from them. 
Gen. xiii, 1 8 ; Judg. vi, 1 1 ; 1 Sam. x, 3 ; Isa. vi, 13; Ezek. 
vi, 13. They are used figuratively as symbols of the good, 
who, in Isa. lxi, 3, are called terebinths (trees) of righteous- 
ness. 

The pistacia is a tree very much resembling the terebinth. 
It bears a very rich species of nuts, which hang in clusters, 
(Gen. xliii, 11,) and which become ripe in October. They 
somewhat resemble almonds in appearance, but are of a much 
better flavour, and are, therefore, most valued by the 
Orientals. Walnuts are common in Palestine, but hazel-nuts 
are scarce. The word which some suppose to mean hazel 
is the name of the almond. 

Bees and Honey. 
Palestine is often called the land flowing with milk and 
honey. This is a tropical expression, and is applied to any 
fruitful land. For instance, Egypt, in Num. xvi, 13. 
Bees were very numerous in Palestine, not only in the hives 
which were constructed for them of clay and straw, but 
frequently in the woods, in the hollow trees, and fissures of 
rocks. Deut. xxxii, 13; Psa. lxxxi, 11. They possess a 



150 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

keen animosity and an equally keen sting, with which they 
make an efficient attack on their enemies. Tropically they 
represent violent and ferocious enemies. Deut. i, 44 ; Psa. 
cxviii, 11, 12. They could be allured by anything that made 
a tinkling sound to any particular place. Isa. vii, 18. 
Honey is often mentioned in the Bible, both in a solid and 
liquid state. Wild honey is also mentioned. 1 Sam. xiv, 
25-27 ; Matt, iii, 4. The ancients were very fond of honey, 
and hence it is tropically used as expressive of pleasure 
and happiness. Psa. cxix, 103; Prov. xxiv, 13, 14; Cant, 
iv, 11. 

Fish. 

Fish were esteemed by all Orientals, as well as Hebrews, a 
great delicacy. Numbers xi, 5. They were taken in great 
numbers from the river Jordan, and the lake of Tiberias, or 
sea of Galilee. Those only which were destitute of scales or 
fins were interdicted. Lev. xi, 10. Hence mention is made of 
the fish-gate at Jerusalem, so called from the circumstance 
of fish being sold there. 2 Chron. xxxiii, 14 ; Neh. iii, 3 ; 
xii, 39 ; Isa. xix, 8 ; Ezek. xxvi, 5, 14 ; xlvii. 10. Fishermen 
are used tropically for enemies. Isa. xix, 8 ; Hab. i, 15. 
Some of the apostles, living near the sea of Galilee, were 
fishermen, and this class of men were, in general, active and 
experienced. Luke v, 1, et seq. Comp. Matt, iv, 19. The 
instruments used in fishing were a hook, iron spear, and 
a net. 

The Fallow Year. 

Agriculture, on every seventh year, came to an end. 
Nothing was sown and nothing was reaped. The vines and 
the olives were not pruned; there was no vintage and no 
gathering of fruits, even of what grew wild ; and whatever 
spontaneous productions there were, were left to the poor, 
the traveller, and wild beasts. This was to let the ground 
have rest, and recover its strength, and to teach the Hebrews 






BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 151 

to be provident of their income. Extraordinary fruitfulness 
was promised the sixth year. Lev. xxv, 20-24. During 
the seventh year the time was spent in fishing, hunting, 
taking care of bees, and flocks, and herds; manufacturing 
and the mechanic arts were also carried on. They were 
obliged to remain longer in the temple this year, during 
which the whole Mosaic law was read, and they were more 
largely instructed in religious and moral duties, and the 
history of their nation. Deut. xxxi, 10-15. The seventh 
year's rest, as Moses predicted, (Lev. xxvi, 34, 35,) was for 
a long time neglected, but after the captivity it was more 
scrupulously observed. 

Origin of the Arts, 

The arts originated partly in necessity, and partly in 
accident. In the fourth generation, after the creation of man, 
we find mention made of artificers in brass and iron, and also 
of musical instruments. Gen. iv, 21-23. From the construc- 
tion of the ark, we learn that the antediluvians must have 
made considerable advancement in the mechanic arts. Not 
long after the Deluge, we find mention made of many things, 
such as utensils and ornaments, which imply a knowledge of 
the arts. Gen. ix, 21 ; xi, 1-9 ; xiv, 1-16 ; xii, 7, 8 ; xv, 10 ; 
xvii, 10 ; xviii, 4-6 ; xix, 32 ; xxi, 14 ; xxii, 10 ; xxiii, 13 ; &c. 
iSoon after the death of Joshua, a place was expressly allotted 
to artificers. It was called the valley of craftsmen. 1 Chron. 
iv, 14 ; Neh. xi, 35. Mention is made of artificers in gold 
and silver. Judg. xvii, 3-5. Women spun, wove, embroidered, 
and made clothing for their families. Exod. xxxv, 25 ; 1 Sam. 
ii, 19; Prov. xxxi, 18-31; Acts ix, 39. Artificers among 
the Hebrews were men of rank. Jer. xxiv, 1 ; xxix, 2 ; 2 Kings 
xxiv, 14. They received instruction from the Syrians. The 
Talmudists taught that all parents should teach their children 
some art or handicraft. Joseph, the husband of Mary, was 
a carpenter. Matt, xiii, 55; Mark vi, 3. Simon of Joppa 
was a tanner. Acts ix, 43 ; x, 32. Alexander, a learned Jew, 



152 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

was a coppersmith. 2 Tim. iv, 14. Paul and Aquila were 
tent-makers. 

The art of alphabetical writing is attributed to an early 
age. The precise time of its invention, however, is not known. 
Forty-five years after the death of Moses, Cadmus, of 
Phoenicia, introduced letters into Greece. Books and writing 
are spoken of in the time of Moses. Exod. xvii, 14 ; xxiv, 4; 
xxviii, 9—11; xxxii, 32; xxxiv, 27, 28; Num. xxxiii, 2; 
Deut. xxvii, 8. Long before his time scribes kept written 
genealogies. Exod. vi, 14 ; Deut. xx, 5-9. In the time of 
Jacob, seals, on which names were engraved, were in use. 
Gen. xxxviii, 18 ; xli, 42. Hieroglyphics were inscribed by 
Egyptians on stone. The law was inscribed on stones. 
Exod. xxxii, 16-32. The scribes had schools for teaching the 
art of writing, called schools of the prophets. 1 Sam. xix, 16 ; 
2 Kings ii, 3-5 ; iv, 38 ; vi, 1. The materials for writing 
were stones, tiles, brass, lead, leaves, bark, skins, wood, linen, 
paper, made from papyrus, and the sand of the earth. The 
instruments were the style, made of iron, for writing on hard 
materials; a small brush, by which letters were painted on 
cotton, cloth, paper, skins, parchment, &c. ; or a reed or pen, 
which was split. Ink was used at an early day. Num. v, 23 ; 
Jer. xxxvi, 18. Books are known as early as Job xix, 23 ; 
Num. xxi, 14 ; Exod. xvii, 14. They were written on flexible 
materials, and rolled round a stick ; if they were very long, 
on two, connected with the extremities ; hence is derived the 
name of volume, or thing rolled up. 

Poetry had its origin in the first ages of the world. It 
was cultivated among the Hebrews as far back as the age of 
Moses. Exod. xv ; Deut. xxxii ; Num. xxi, 24. The book of Job 
is poetic. Hebrew poetry is characterized by ardent feelings, 
splendid thoughts, and beautiful imagery. It is distinguished 
from accidental poetry in several particulars, especially in its 
metaphors and ornaments. 

Music is coeval with poetry. Musical instruments were 
the invention of Jubal, Gen. iv, 21 ; and as early as Gen. 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 153 

xxxi, 27, we are introduced to a whole choir. The Hebrews 
insisted on having music at marriages, birth-days, inaugura- 
tion of kings, public worship, and great festivals. Isa. xxx, 29. 
In the tabernacle and temple the Levkes were the lawful 
musicians. The holy silver trumpets were only blown by 
the priests. Num. i, 1-10. David divided the four thousand 
Levites into twenty-four classes, each of which were superin- 
tended by a leader. 1 Chron. xvi, 5; xxiii, 4, 5 ; xxv, 1-31 ; 
2 Chron. v, 12, 13. This arrangement for singing was 
transferred to the temple, and continued till the time of the 
overthrow of Jerusalem. The harp was a stringed instru- 
ment ; the strings were originally swept by the hand, but 
subsequently with a small bow or fret. The psaltery was a 
ten-stringed instrument ; this was played by the fingers ; 
its form was that of a right-angled triangle. The organ, 
anciently called the shepherd's pipe, consisted at first of seven 
pipes, made of reeds of different length. The horn, or 
crooked trumpet, was made of the horns of oxen or rams. 
The straight trumpet was a cubit in length, hollow through- 
out, and bell-shaped at the mouth. The timbrel or tabret 
consisted of a small hoop, with a skin tensely drawn over it, 
and hung round with bells. The cymbal consisted of two 
thin pieces of metal of circular shape ; the musician held one 
in his right hand and the other in his left, and smote them 
together. Various other instruments of music were invented 
from time to time, but the above are the more important 
mentioned in Scripture. 

Dancing among the Mohammedans is esteemed an 
amusement unworthy the dignity of men, and hence is left 
to women and children. It is practised among the Orientals 
in a very indecorous manner; among the Hebrews it was 
sacredly used. Exod. xv, 20 ; Judg. xi, 34 ; 1 Sam. xviii, 6, 7 ; 
Jer. xxxi, 4-13 ; Psa. lxviii, 26 ; 2 Sam. vi, 16-23. 

The art of oratory never flourished in the East. 

7* 



154 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Sciences. 

In scientific knowledge the Egyptians and Babylonians 
excelled all others. The Arabians are also favourably men- 
tioned in this respect, 1 Kings, iv, 30 ; also the Edomites. 
Jer. xlix, 7. The Hebrews became renowned for their 
intellectual culture in the time of David, and especially in 
Solomon's day. 1 Kings, v, 9-14. After this, literature 
declined. 

The Hebrews, Babylonians, Assyrians, Egyptians, Persians, 
and Tyrians, had their historical annals. Arithmetical 
calculations are spoken of in Gen. xxiv, 60 ; Lev. xxvi, 8 ; 
Deut. xxxii, 30. Mathematics, Astronomy, and Astrology 
were cultivated at an early period. Time was divided into 
years, weeks, and days, which were divided as follows, viz. : 
break of day, morning or sun rise, heat of the day, mid-day, 
cool of the day, evening; and also into hours, the principal of 
which were the third, sixth, and ninth. Night was divided 
into four watches. In addition to the week of days, the 
Jews had the week of weeks, the week of years, and the 
week of seven Sabbatical years. The changes of the moon 
were employed in the measurement of time, and hence the 
name of month. The months were civil and sacred. 

Medicine was cultivated at an early day. The Egyptians 
carried their sick into the temples of Serapis, and the Greeks 
carried theirs into those of JEsculapius. Physicians are first 
mentioned in Gen. 1, 2; Exod. xxi, 19; Job xiii, 4. Dissec- 
tions were not made till the time of Ptolemy. Among the 
Hebrews and Egyptians the art of healing was committed 
to the priests. 

Natural Philosophy may be found in the book of Job 
and in the thirty-seventh, thirty-ninth, and seventy-third 
Psalms. Natural History was also cultivated to some 
extent. 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 155. 

Commerce. 

At a very early period traffic between different nations 
was carried on to a considerable extent. Frequent mention 
is made of public roads, fords, bridges, beasts of burdeu, 
ships, weights, measures, and coins. The Phoenicians 
anciently held the first rank as a commercial nation. The 
ships of Tarshish were famed for their distant voyages. 
The inhabitants of Arabia Felix carried on a trade with India. 
Goods were transported across the country on camels. 
Several merchants would band together and form a caravan. 
Solomon sent ships through the Ked Sea to Ophir. The 
principal sea-port of Palestine was Joppa. A new port was 
built by Herod the Great at Cesar ea. 

Weights and Measures were regulated at a very early 
period in Asia. After the time of Solomon the models 
for weights and measures were deposited in the temple. 
A finger, or digit, was about 9^ of an inch ; a palm, a 
hand-breadth ; a span, from the end of the thumb to that of 
the little finger ; a cubit, from the elbow to the wrist ; a 
measure, the length of a man's arm ; a measuring reed, the 
length of the human body ; a stadium, four feet and 6 T J F ; 
a Sabbath day's journey, two miles; a day's journey, from 
twenty to thirty miles ; an omer, five pints and one-tenth ; 
an ephah, three pecks and three pints ; and several other 
measures of less importance. 

There is no trace of stamped silver coin previous to the 
captivity. Gold, even so late as the time of David, was not 
used as a standard of value. 

A grain of barley was the smallest weight. The weight 
most in use was the shekel. 

Clothing. 

Our first parents protected themselves with the leaves of a 
fig-tree, and afterwards with the skins of animals. The art 
of manufacturing cloths by spinning and weaving is of great 



156 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

antiquity. Gen. xiv, 23; xxxi, 18, 19; xxxvii, 3 ; xxxviii, 28 ; 
Job vii, 6; xxxi, 20. The Egyptians were celebrated for 
such manufactures. Alexander found silks in Persia. White 
was esteemed the most appropriate colour for cotton cloth, and 
purple for the others. Kings and princes were clothed in 
purple. Luke xvi, 19 ; Rev. xviii, 12. The scarlet colour 
is first mentioned in Gen. xxxviii, 28. The hyacinth, or dark 
blue colour, was highly esteemed among the Assyrians. 
Ezek. xxiii, 6. Black colour was used for common wear, 
and particularly on occasions of mourning. Parti-coloured 
cloth was much esteemed. Gen. xxxvii, 3, 23 ; 2 Sam. xiii, 18. 
As early as the time of Moses, cloth was embroidered. 

The tunic was the most simple and^ ancient garment ; 
it was a piece of cloth which encircled the whole body, bound 
with a girdle, and extending to the knees. The meil was a 
garment which extended below the knees, open at the top, 
so as to be drawn over the head. The ephod consisted of 
two parts, united by a clasp or buckle on the shoulder. 
The hat or turban, worn on the head, was early used. The 
toga was a Roman garment, and the cloak a, Greek garment. 
Sandals were small pieces of wood, or leather, bound to the 
bottom of the feet. To loose and bind on sandals was the 
lowest office of a servant. In contracts, the seller gave his 
sandal to the buyer in confirmation of the bargain. 

The beard was considered among the Hebrews a great 
ornament. No one was allowed to touch it, except for the 
purpose of kissing it. To cut, or shave, or mar it in any 
way, was considered a great disgrace. 1 Chron. xix, 3-5 ; 
2 Sam. x, 4-10. The beard was used tropically for distin- 
guished men of any nation. The shaving of it denoted 
servitude. Isa. vii, 20. The Egyptians and Arabians were in 
the habit of shaving the beard ; sometimes the Hebrews ap- 
plied the razor. Shaving was absolutely interdicted to the 
Nazarites. Num. vi, 5 ; Judg. xiii, V ; xvi, 17. Baldness was 
a source of contempt. The head was combed, set in order, 
and the hair anointed, especially on festive occasions. 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 157 

Females allowed the hair to grow long. They braided it, 
and sometimes interwove gems and gold. Anciently the 
hair was the only covering for the head. Afterwards, mitres 
made of cloth were used. Those worn by the priests were 
higher. 

The difference between the dress of the men and women 
was small, and consisted chiefly in the fineness of the 
material and the length. The women wore a veil, which was 
customary with all, except maid-servants, and those in low 
condition, and prostitutes. Veils were of different kinds. 

The Hebrews carried a staff, to assist in a journey, as well 
as for an ornament. Exod. xii, 11 ; Gen. xxxviii, 18, 25. They 
also, in imitation of the Egyptians, wore a seal suspended 
from the neck, over the breast. .Gen. xxxviii, 18. Frequently 
a ring, with some inscription on it, was used as a seal, by a 
delivery or transfer of which, from a monarch, the highest 
offices of the kingdom were created. Gen. xli, 42 ; Esth. hi, 
10-12; viii, 2; Jer. xxii, 24; Dan. vi, 10; xiii, 7. They 
were worn as an ornament of the finger on the right hand. 
The ladies wore a number of rings on their fingers, and also 
in their ears, and sometimes in their nose. Gen. xxiv, 22 ; 
Exod. xxxii, 2, 3 ; xxxv, 22. They also wore rings of silver 
and gold around then* ancles: they also wore necklaces, 
bracelets, &c. Hebrew women carried amulets for ornament, 
and to keep off incantations. 

Mirrors were made of polished brass. In Job xxxvii, 18, 
the heavens are compared to a molten mirror. The ladies 
carried their mirrors in their hands. 

A man's girdle fulfilled for him all the purposes of a purse. 
The purse of a lady, which was made of solid metal, some- 
times of gold, and fashioned like a cone, with a border of 
rich cloth at the top, was suspended from the girdle which she 
wore. Both sexes either wore napkins attached to their 
girdle, or bore them upon their hand or left arm. The 
dress used on festival occasions was very splendid, and 
perfumed with myrrh, cassia, and aloes. Gen. xxvii, 27 ; 



158 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Psa. xlv, 8; Cant, iv, 11. Vast expense was bestowed on 
these garments, both as respected their quality and number. 
2 Kings v, 5 ; Matt, x, 10 ; James v, 2. The mourning- 
dress or sackcloth extended down to the knees. It is a coarse 
dark cloth of goat's hair. 

Food and Feasts. 

At first men lived on the fruit of trees, upon herbs, roots, 
and seeds, and whatever else they could find nutritive in the 
vegetable kingdom. Gen. i, 29; ii, 16. Afterwards, a 
method was invented to bruise grain, and to reduce it to a 
mass ; with this water, milk, and honey were sometimes mixed. 
Before the Deluge the flesh of animals was used for food. 
Gen. vii, 2, 8. Originally food of every kind was eaten 
without being cooked, because there was no fire ; and even if 
there had been, its use in the preparation of food was un- 
known. Corn was eaten at first without any preparation at 
all, and this custom had not gone into total desuetude in the 
time of Christ. Matt, xii, 1. Some, who found a difficulty 
in mastication, broke the kernels with stones, which sug- 
gested the idea of mortars and mills. Meal is spoken of as 
far back as the time of Abraham. As there were no public 
bakers except the king's, each family owned a hand-mill, con- 
sisting of two stones. One person could not take another's 
mill as a pledge. Deut. xxiv, 6. Enemies taken in war were 
condemned to turn the mill. Judg. xvi, 21 ; Lam. v, 13. 
The business of baking was performed by women, no matter 
how high their station in life ; cooking was also done by the 
matron of the family. The use of salt is very ancient. 
Num. xviii, 19 ; 2 Chron. xiii, 5. It is a symbol of invio- 
lable friendship. A covenant of salt means an everlasting 
covenant. It is also used tropically for wisdom and for 
preservation, Mark ix, 49, 50 ; Col. iv, 6 ; and salt that lost 
its savour or saltness, on the contrary, folly and corrup- 
tion. Matt. v. 13. Some sorts of food were interdicted : — 
1st, Quadrupeds which do not ruminate, or have cloven feet: 






BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 159 

2d, Serpents and creeping* insects; 3d, Certain species of 
birds ; 4th, Fishes without scales or fins ; 5th, All food, all 
liquids standing in a vessel, and all wet seed into which the 
dead body of any unclean insect had fallen — water in 
cisterns, wells, and fountains, could not be contaminated in 
this way ; 6th, All food and liquids which stood in the tent or 
chamber of a dying or dead man, remaining uncovered ; 
7th, Everything which was consecrated by any one to idols 
or gods. 1 Cor. viii, 10. Blood was interdicted; also, an 
animal that died of itself, or was torn to pieces by wild 
beasts ; and the fat covering the intestines, the large lobe of 
the liver, the kidneys, and the fat on them. 

The Mohammedans drink water commonly, but the rich a 
beverage called sherbet. The Orientals frequently use wine, 
and sometimes it was used to excess, from which circumstance 
many tropes are drawn. Isa. v, 11-22; xxviii, 1-11; 
xlix, 26 ; Jer. viii, 14 ; ix, 14 ; xvi, 48 ; Deut. xxxii, 42 ; 
Psa. lxxviii, 65. Wines -were sometimes mixed or adulter- 
ated, and sometimes diluted. Their drinking vessels were a 
cup of brass covered with tin, in form resembling a lily ; the 
bowl was also of the same form ; they were sometimes of silver 
and gold. The larger vessels were urns and bottles. 

The time of taking refreshments was about eleven o'clock 
of our time. Their principal meal was about six o'clock in 
the afternoon ; hence their feasts were always at supper-time. 
The table was a piece of round leather, spread on the floor, 
around which they sat in a circle. They had neither knife, 
fork, nor spoon. In the time of Christ the Persian custom 
prevailed of reclining at the table. The guests reclined upon 
the left side. Luke vii, 36-38; xvi, 22, 23; John ii, 8; 
xiii, 23. Anciently females were excluded from the table, 
with, the exception of Babylon and Persia. After supper 
they usually drank. The cup is used tropically to represent 
a man's lot. Psa. xi, 6 ; lxxv, 8 ; Isa. Ii, 22 ; Jer. xxv, 15-2*7 ; 
xxxv, 5; xlix, 12; Ezek. xxiii, 31-34; Matt, xxvi, 39. 

Feasts are mentioned at an early period. Gen. xxi, 8 ; 



160 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

xxix, 22 ; xxxi, 27-54 ; xl, 20. In respect to the second 
tithes, which originated from the vow of Jacob, (Gen. 
xxviii, 22,) Moses was very particular in his laws. At the 
feast of the second sort of first-fruits, servants, widows, orphans, 
and Levites should be made free partakers. Deut. xvi, 11-14. 
Jesus alludes to this festival, which was designed for the poor. 
Luke xiv, 13. The guests appeared in white robes. These 
feasts sometimes continued from evening till morning. 
Feasts are symbolical of a state of prosperity and happiness; 
and exclusion from them, of destitution and misery. The 
kingdom of Christ is compared to a feast. 

There being no public inns in the East, great hospitality 
characterized the inhabitants. This extended to all classes ; 
even the wandering Arabs receive and treat strangers with 
hospitality to this day. 

State of Domestic Society. 

Polygamy and fornication were condemned by that pri- 
meval institution which joined in marriage one man and one 
woman. Gen. i, 2*7, 28. Before the time of Moses, morals had 
become very much corrupted, and not only the prostitution of 
females, but of boys, was very common among many nations, 
and even made a part of the divine worship. To prevent 
these evils, Moses made the following regulations : 1. Among 
the Israelites no prostitute, male or female, was tolerated. 
2. That the price of whoredom, though presented in return 
for a vow, should not be received at the sanctuary. Deut. 
xxiii, 19. 3. A man who had seduced a female should 
marry her, and, in case the father would not consent, should 
pay thirty shekels ; and, if violence had been offered, fifty. 
4. That a person who, when married, was not found to be a 
virgin, as she professed, was to be stoned. Notwith- 
standing the severity of these laws, prostitutes of both sexes 
were set apart in the time of the kings for the service of 
idols. Prov. ii, 16-19; v, 3-6; vii, 5-27; Amos ii, 7; 
vii, 17 ; Jer. iii, 2 ; v, 7 ; 1 Kings xiv, 24 ; xv, 12. 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 161 

Lamech is the first mentioned having two wives. After the 
Deluge the example of Noah and his sons was a good one, 
but it was not followed. Polygamy prevailed very much in 
the time of Moses. Deut. xvii, 17. Moses regulated polyg- 
amy by requiring the husband to bestow his attention on 
each one at certain times. Exod. xxi, 10, 11 ; Gen. xxx, 
14-16. Intercourse was prohibited during the menses on 
pain of death. Uncleanness contracted by sexual connexion 
continued through a whole day. The father of a family 
selected wives for his sons and husbands for his daughters. 
Intermarriage with foreigners was prohibited, lest the 
Hebrews should be seduced to idolatry. A priest was not 
allowed to marry a prostitute, or a divorced or profane 
woman. A marriage covenant was a vow between the 
father and brothers of the bride, and the father of the bride- 
groom. Wives were sometimes purchased. The honour 
which is now rendered to the female sex originated from the 
instructions of the apostles. An interval of ten or twelve 
months elasped between the agreement to many and the 
consummation, during which time there was no intercourse. 
If the bridegroom, from any cause, was unwilling to fulfil 
his engagements by marriage, he was obliged to give her a 
bill of divorcement, the same as if she had been his wife. 
On the occasion of the marriage the bridegroom prepared a 
feast. Judg. xiv, 17. In the evening the bridegroom, with 
his company, came, and conducted the bride from the house 
of her father to the place where the nuptials were celebrated, 
with great feasting and rejoicings. After this the nuptial 
blessing was pronounced, and the spouse, who up to this time 
is veiled from head to foot, is led to the bed-chamber. 

Concubines were sometimes associated with individuals of 
the other sex, and were entitled to claim the privileges of a 
wife; they were obtained in various ways. Exod. xxi, 9-12; 
Deut. xx, 10-14. A large number of offspring was con- 
sidered an instance of the divine favour, while sterility was 
looked upon as a reproach and punishment. 1 Sam. i, 6, 1 ; 



162 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Psa. cxxvii, 3-5. The state of celibacy was also considered 
a great reproach. If the husband died, leaving a widow 
without issue, the brother of the deceased, or nearest male 
relation, was bound to marry her. 

If a married man has criminal intercourse with a married 
woman, or one promised in marriage, or a widow expecting 
to be married with a brother-in-law, it is accounted adultery. 
If the woman is unmarried it is fornication. Before the 
time of Moses this was reckoned a crime, and was punished. 
Gen. xxxviii, 24. In Egypt the nose, and in Persia the nose 
and ears of an adultress were cut off. In the penal code of 
Moses it was punished by death. Lev. xx, 1 0. The suspected 
wife was subjected to the ordeal oath. To this oath dreadful 
penalties were attached. This was abrogated forty years 
before the destruction of Jerusalem. In the latter periods of 
the Jewish Church adultery and licentiousness in every form 
abounded, so that few could be found innocent. John viii, 1-8. 

Though the power of the husband over the wife was great, 
the law did not permit him to repudiate his wife without 
a bill of divorce. Deut. xxiv, 1-4 ; xxiii, 14, 15. The 
wife, under certain circumstances, could obtain a divorce. 
Exod. xxi, 10. 

Mothers were generally the only assistants of their 
daughters at child-birth. In cases of difficulty, mid wives 
were called in. The birth of a son was a time of rejoicing. 
The mother, after the birth of a son, was unclean for seven 
days, and remained at home thirty-three days. If a daughter 
was born, the number of unclean days was doubled. After 
the expiration of this period she went into the tabernacle, or 
temple, and offered a lamb, or doves and pigeons, for a 
sacrifice of purification. Lev. xii, 1-8 ; Luke ii, 22. 

On the eighth day the son was circumcised, and by this 
rite was consecrated to God. Circumcision was a prevent- 
ive of the disease called the anthrax, or carbuncle, originating 
from the impurities which collect under the foreskin. Gen. 
xxxiv, 25. This rite was known previous to the time of 



BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 163 

Abraham. It was practised in Egypt. Gen. xii, 10-15. A 
name was given to the male child at the time of circumcision. 
Gen. xvi, 11; xix, 37; xxv, 25; Exod. ii, 10; xviii, 3, 4. 
Names were given from the circumstances of birth, from 
peculiarities in the history of the famity, &c. They were 
sometimes compound, one part being the name of the Deity, 
and, among idolatrous nations, the name of an idol. Some- 
times the Orientals had two names. A new name is tropic- 
ally used to denote distinction. The first-born inherited 
peculiar rights and privileges; he received a double portion 
of the estate. Gen. xlviii, 5-8; Deut. xxi, 17. The first- 
born was the priest of the whole family. Num. iii, 12-18 ; 
viii, 18. They had an authority over those who were 
younger. Gen. xxv, 23. 

In the first ages of the world mothers nursed their children 
themselves. The day when the child was weaned, which 
was thirty months, was made a festival. If the mother died, 
nurses were employed. The sons remained in the care of 
the mother until they were five years old, when they were 
taken by the father and instructed in the arts and duties of 
life, in the Mosaic law, and all parts of their religion. Deut. 
vi, 20-25 ; vii, 19 ; xi, 19. Some were sent to the schools 
of the prophets. The daughters were always in the care of 
their mothers, and spent their time in learning domestic 
duties. Implicit obedience was required and enforced by the 
father of his children. Gen. xxi, 14; xxxviii, 24. 

At the death of the father his estate was divided among 
his sons, the first receiving two, and the rest equal shares. 
Presents were made by will to the sons of concubines, and 
sometimes they were made equal. The daughters not only 
had no portion in the estate, but, if unmarried, were considered 
as making part of it, and could be sold by their brothers into 
matrimony. If there were no brothers the estate fell to 
them. Slaves were sometimes made heirs. The widow of 
the deceased had no right to any part of the estate. "Widows 
were often neglected. Isa. i, 17; x, 2 ; Jer. vii, 6. 



164 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Slavery existed and prevailed before the Deluge. Gen. 
ix, 25. Some of the patriarchs had thousands of slaves. The 
laws of Moses permitted the Hebrews to own slaves, male and 
female, but they were bound to circumcise them, and instruct 
them in the worship of the true God. Gen. xvh, 13-17. 
Though the Hebrews were permitted to hold foreigners in 
slavery, yet they were prohibited from making slaves of the 
Canaanites, and also the Gibeonites, the Kephirites, the 
Berothites, and the inhabitants of Kirjath-jearim. Among 
the many ways by which men were reduced to slavery, we 
notice the following: — 1st. Captivity in war. Deut. xx, 14 ; 
xxi, 10, 11 ; Gen. xiv. 2d. Debts. 2 Kings iv, 1 ; Isa. 1, 1 ; 
Matt xviii, 25. 3d. Theft Exod. xxii, 2 ; Neh. v, 4, 5. 
4th. Man-stealing. Exod. xxi, 16; Deut. xxiv, 7. 5th. The 
children of slaves — those born in one's house — children of maid- 
servants. Gen. xiv, 14 ; xv, 3 ; xvii, 23 ; xxi, 10. 6th. By pur- 
chase. (See Jahn's Archaeology, p. 1 80 — Andover, 1832.) The 
medium price of a slave was thirty shekels. Lev. xxvii, 1-8. 
The food and clothing of slaves were of the poorest descrip- 
tion. All their earnings went to their master. Deut. xv, 18. 
They had the consent of their master to marry, or live with 
a woman. The children addressed their owners as lord or 
master. Gal. iv, 6 ; Rom. viii, 15. The servant most discreet 
and faithful was placed over the rest, and made steward of the 
house. Some of the servants instructed the children of their 
masters, while some waited upon their masters and others on 
their mistresses. The law required the masters to treat their 
slaves with humanity. Lev. xx v, 3 9-5 3 . The master who slew 
a servant was held responsible. Exod. xxi, 20, 21 . An injury 
inflicted by the master secured the freedom of the slave. Exod. 
xxi, 26, 27. On the Sabbath and festivals they had a cessation 
from labour. Exod. xx, 10 ; Deut. v, 14. They were invited 
to those feasts made of second tithes. Deut. xii, 1 7, 1 8. They 
were to receive an adequate subsistence from their masters. 
Deut. xxv, 4 ; 1 Tim. v, 18 ; 1 Cor. ix, 9. The master 
was bound to provide for the marriage of maid-servants, unless 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 165 

he took them as concubines or gave them to his sons. 
Exod. xxi, 8. A servant of Hebrew origin was not obliged 
to serve over six years. Exod. xxi, 2. He could, however, 
give himself up to perpetual servitude. Exod. xxi, 5, 6 ; Deut. 
xv, 16. The master, however, could not sell such to any out 
of Hebrew territories. Ibid. Servants might redeem them- 
selves, or be redeemed by the purchase of their time. Lev. 
xxv, 47-55. All Hebrew servants were emancipated in the 
year of jubilee. Lev. xxxix, 25-41. Finally, a slave who 
had fled from another nation was to be treated kindly, and 
not forcibly returned back. Deut. xxiii, 15, 16. 

In other countries there was no Sabbath or rest of any 
kind for slaves. Runaway slaves were branded in the fore- 
head. Gal. vi, 17 ; Rev. xiv, 9 ; xxii, 4. They were debar- 
red from a participation in all civil festivals and religious 
exercises. Christianity ameliorated their condition in this 
respect. Gal. iii, 28; Col. iii, 10, 11 ; Philemon 10 ; 1 Cor. 
xii, 13; Eph. vi, 8. 

Social condition of the Hebrews. 

The forms of salutation which prevailed among the an- 
cient Hebrews were as follows: — 1. Be thou blessed of Je- 
hovah. 2. The blessing of Jehovah be upon thee. 3. May 
God be with thee. 4. May peace and prosperity attend 
thee. 5. Sir, be your life preserved. The gestures and in- 
flexions of the body, made on an occasion of salutation, 
were varied, according to the dignity and station of the per- 
son saluted. The ceremony of advancing and receding, 
kissing the hand and the beard, is sometimes as often re- 
peated as ten times. Hence it was anciently inculcated upon 
messengers whose business required haste, to salute no man 
by the way. 2 Kings iv, 29 ; Luke x, 4. Prostration was 
made before kings. 1 Kings ii, 19. 

In visiting, a person would stand at the gate and knock, 
or call with a loud voice, till the master came out. If the 



166 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

visitor were a proper person, the females were required to 
repair to their respective apartments, and he was introduced 
into the house. 2 Kings v, 9-12; Acts x, 17. Presents 
were carried by visitors. Gen. xxvii, 27 ; Exodus xxx, 37, 38. 
Kings were in the habit of making and receiving presents. 

Kings, princes, and national ambassadors, whenever on a 
public occasion they enter cities, receive great attention and 
honour. The windows are opened, and the flat roofs crowded 
with spectators. The path is strewed with flowers and 
branches, and sometimes spread with carpets, while shouts 
are echoed on every side. 2 Sam. xvi, 16 ; 1 Kings i, 40 ; 
2 Kings ix, 13 ; Isa. lxii, 11 ; Zech. ix, 9; Matt, xxi, 7, 8. 
The musicians first walk in the procession. 1 Kings xviii, 46 ; 
1 Chron. xv, 27-29. The persons who sustain offices in the 
government, and are attached to the palace, are the next in 
the procession. Then follows the king. All are carried on 
noble coursers. Anciently, on such occasions, kings rode in 
chariots. Gen. xli, 43 ; 2 Sam. xv, 1 ; 1 Kings i, 5. 

Conversation was usually held in the gate of the city, 
where there was an open space fitted up with seats for the 
accommodation of the people. Gen. xix, 1 ; Psa. Ixix, 12. 
Judicial trials were commonly investigated at the gate. Gen. 
xix, 1; xxxiv, 20; Psa. xxvi, 4, 5; lxix, 12; cxxvii, 5; 
Kuth iv, 11 ; Isa. xiv, 31. The ancient Asiatics were also 
delighted with singing and dancing, and instruments of mu- 
sic. Promenading was wearisome in the warm climates of 
the East, and hence the people sought retired places, beneath 
the shade of vines and fig-trees. 1 Samuel xxii, 6 ; Micah 
iv, 4. 

The bath was also very agreeable to the Orientals, not only 
on account of its cool and refreshing nature, but the neces- 
sity of cleanliness, in order to health. Baths were frequented 
by the ladies, and formed an agreeable resort. The Egyp- 
tians, at the earliest period, were in the habit of bathing in 
the waters of the Nile. Exod. ii, 5 ; vii, 13-25. It was one 
of the civil laws of the Hebrews that the bath should be 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 167 

used. Lev. xiv, 2; xv, 1-8; xvii, 15, 16; xxii, 6; Num. 
xix, 6. 

In conversation, the Orientals are candid and mild, very 
rarely using any terms of reproach. The severest terms are 
adversary, raca, or fool. Job ii, 10 ; Psa. xiv, 1 ; Isa. xxxii, 6 ; 
Matt, v, 22 ; xvi, 23. The formula of assent or affirma- 
tion was ov slirag, thou hast said, or thou hast rightly said. 
This explains the answer of Christ to Caiaphas, in Matt, 
xx vi, 64. To spit, in company, in a carpeted room, was an 
indication of great rusticity of manners. To spit in one's 
face was an indication of great indignity. Matt, xxvi, 67 ; 
Mark xiv, 65. 

The Jews were instructed, by the laws of Moses, to treat 
strangers with hospitality. Of this class were all foreigners, 
whether Hebrews or others destitute of a home, as well as 
all who resided in Palestine, but were not natives ; the latter 
were strangers or foreigners, in the strict sense of the term. 
Both these were to be treated as citizens, and enjoy the same 
rights. Lev. xix, 33, 34 ; xxiv, 16-22 ; Num. ix, 14 ; xv, 14 ; 
Deut. x, 18; xxiii, 8; xxiv, 17; xxvii, 19. At a later pe- 
riod, foreigners were compelled to iabour on the public edi- 
fices. 1 Chron. xxii, 2; 2 Chron. ii, 16, 17. In the time of 
Christ, the Jews had degenerated in hospitality. 

Although Moses made abundant provision for the poor, he 
does not say anything in respect to beggars. The first notice 
of mendicants is in Psa. cix, 10. In the time of Christ, 
they were found sitting in the streets, at the doors and gates 
of the rich, and also at the entrance of the temple and syn- 
agogues. Mark x, 46 ; Luke xvi, 20 ; Acts iii, 2. Some- 
times food and money were given to them. Matt, xxvi, 9 ; 
Luke xvi, 21. Oriental beggars do not appeal to the pity 
of those they solicit, but to their justice. Job xxii, 7 ; xxxi, 16 ; 
Prov. iii, 27, 28 ; xxi, 21 ; Psalm xxiv, 5 ; Eccles. iv, 1 ; 
xiv, 13, 14; Matt, vi, 1. 

Persons defiled from disease, or any other cause, were ex- 
cluded from the intercourse of society, and the tabernacle 



168 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

and temple ; but they might, by ceremonial purification, be 
restored. Lev. xiii, 3. The Levitical law regarded the fol- 
lowing persons as unclean : — 

1 . Those who had the leprosy. They were excluded from 
cities and villages, and were compelled to cry out, to all 
they met, unclean ! unclean ! Lev. xiii, 45 ; Num. v, 2, et seq. 

2. Those who had the gonorrhoea, whether in a mild or 
virulent form. Lev. xv, 3. 

3. Those who had emissio seminis, even in legitimate in- 
tercourse, were to be unclean till evening. Lev. xv, 16-22. 

4. "Women after the birth of a son were unclean for 
seven days, and after the birth of a daughter twice as long. 
In the former case they were excluded from the temple for 
thirty, and in the latter, for sixty days. Lev. xii, 1-6 ; xv, 
16-28. 

5. Women during the period of the menses were unclean 
Lev. xv, 19-21 ; Matt, ix, 20. 

6. A person who touched the corpse of a man, or the dead 
body of an animal, or a sepulchre, or had been in the tent or 
room of a dying or dead person. Priests wearing badges 
of mourning were made thereby unclean ; and hence they 
never wore them, except in case of the death of their rela- 
tives. Lev. v, 2; xi, 8-11; xxiv, 31; xxi, 1-5, 10, 11; 
Num. xix, 11-15. 

Diseases. 

The disease which is mentioned in 1 Sam. v, 6-12 ; vi, 18, 
was the dysentery, according to some, and by others it 
is supposed to have been an inflammation and swelling of 
the fundament, produced by the bite of a venomous ani- 
mal belonging to the spider class, but much larger. The 
bite of these animals was fatal in its consequences. 

The disease of King Jehoram, mentioned in 2 Chron. xxi, 
12-15, 18, 19, was the dysentery. 

The leprosy was regarded by the ancients as a marked 
exhibition of the justice and wrath of God. It was denom- 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 169 

mated by the Hebrews the stroke or wound of the Lord. 
Num. xii, 1-10 ; 2 Kings v, 1 ; xv, 5 ; 2 Chron. xxvi, 20. 
The disease commences internally, and finally develops itself 
until it appears on the surface of the body. The first ap- 
pearance is small red spots about the nose and eyes ; and 
they increase in size for a number of years, until they become 
as large as a pea or bean, and cover the whole body. There 
are four kinds of leprosy. The first kind is of so virulent 
and powerful a nature that it separates the joints, and mu- 
tilates the body in the most shocking manner. The second 
is white leprosy, the third is black leprosy, and the fourth is 
red leprosy. The disease is almost always fatal, however 
long it may be in passing through the various stages. To a 
certain extent it is hereditary, and passes down to the third 
and fourth generation. There was a species of leprosy termed 
Bohak, which was not infectious. Lev. xiii, 38, 39. The 
peculiarities belonging to real leprosy are — 1. It is incurable; 
2. It is infectious; and, 3. It is hereditary. 

The 'pestilence was any sudden calamity which, in the form 
of disease, fell upon the people, and speedily put an end to 
their existence ; as, for instance, the destruction of Sennach- 
erib's army. 

Demoniacal possession is frequently mentioned in the New 
Testament. Some have supposed that there was no such 
thing as demoniacal possession, or, what is the same thing, 
that those said to be possessed were either madmen, epilep- 
tics, or persons subject to melancholy. That demoniacs 
were really possessed with devils, will appear from the follow- 
ing considerations : — 

1. They expressed themselves in a way different from 
epileptic, melancholy, or insane persons. Matt, viii, 28 ; Luke 
viii, 27 ; Mark v, 7. They possessed the supernatural power 
of sundering all sorts of cords and chains. They requested 
Jesus not to torment them. They answered, with propriety, 
questions proposed to them. Demons departed from them, 
and entered into swine. 

8 



1*70 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

2. No symptoms of disease are mentioned in the ease of 
the dumb demoniac in Matt, ix, 32, Luke xi, 14. and 
Matt, xii, 22. 

3. The damsel of Philippi (Acts xvi, 16) practised divina- 
tion, which evidently could not have been done by an insane 
person. 

4. The demoniacs themselves say they were possessed with 
a devil. The Jews themselves assert the same thing. The 
apostles and evangelists allege that persons possessed with 
devils were brought to Christ, and that they departed at his 
command ; and, finally, Jesus asserts himself that he cast 
out devils. 

5. The sacred writers make an express distinction between 
the demoniacs and the sick, and likewise between the exor- 
cism of demons and the healing of the sick. Mark i, 32 ; 
Luke vi, IT, 18 ; vii, 21 ; viii, 2 ; xiii, 32. 

6. Demoniacs knew what madmen, deranged, epileptic, 
and melancholy persons could not of themselves know, viz., 
that Jesus was the Son of God, the Messiah, the son of Da- 
vid, &c. Mark i, 24; v, 1 ; Matt, viii, 29 ; Luke iv, 34. 

7. Jesus speaks to demons and asks their name, and they 
answer him. He also threatens them — commands them to 
be silent — to depart and not return. Mark i, 25 ; v, 8 ; ix, 25 ; 
Matt, viii, 29-31 ; Luke iv, 35 ; viii, 30-32. 

8. When the seventy returned from their labours, they re- 
ported that the devils were subject unto them, through the 
name of Christ ; and Jesus replied, " I saw Satan as light- 
ning fall from heaven." 

9. When Jesus was accused of casting out devils by Beel- 
zebub, he replied that a house divided against itself could 
not stand. 

10. Jesus makes remarks in Matt, xii, 43 and in Luke 
xi, 24 which could not apply to persons diseased. 

11. The woman in Luke xiii, 11 was bound by Satan. 
Peter says, Acts x, 38, that all who had been oppressed with 
the devil were healed. 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 171 

12. The Church Fathers, without one dissenting voice, 
embraced the opinions expressed above, in regard to demo- 
niacal possessions. ' 

The paralysis, or palsy, of the New Testament, had a 
wide import. Many infirmities were thus denominated. 

1. Apoplexy, a paralytic shock which affected the whole 
body. 

2. The hemiplegy, which paralyzes one half of the body. 

3. The paraplegy, which paralyzes all parts of the body 
but the neck. 

4. The catalepsy, which is caused by a contraction of the 
muscles in the whole or part of the body, and is very dan- 
gerous. 

5. The cramp, which originates from the chills of the 
night. 

Death, Burials, and Mourning. 

Reception into the presence of God at death, is asserted in 
only two passages of the Old Testament, viz., Haggai ii, 23 
and Eccles. xii, V. The opinion that life is a journey, and 
death its terminus, where the traveller mingles with the 
hosts that have gone before, originated the following phrases : 
To be gathered to one's people ; to go to one's fathers. Gen. 
xv, 15; xxxvii, 35. The visiting of the fathers has refer- 
ence to the immortal part, and is clearly distinguished from 
the burial of the body. Gen. xxxvii, 35. 

Sometimes the Hebrews regarded death as a friendly mes- 
senger, but more frequently as a formidable enemy. He was 
figuratively represented as a hunter, armed with a dart or 
javelin, and having a net and a snare, and when he made 
captive the children of men he slew them. 2 Sam. xxvi, 6 ; 
Psa. xviii, 5, 6 ; cxvi, 3 ; 1 Cor. xv, 55, 56. Some repre- 
sented death as the king of the lower world, and had him 
occupying a subterranean place called Sheol and Hades, in 
which he exercised sovereignty over all men, even kings and 
warriors, who had departed from this existence. This place 



172 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

occurs also under the phrases, the gates of death, or Hades. 
Job xxxviii, 17 ; Psa. ix, 13 ; xlix, 15 ; cvii, 18 ; Isa. xxxviii, 
10-18; Matt, xvi, 18. Mention is made in Psa. xviii, 4-5 
of the rivers of Hades. 

When a man died, the friends or sons of the deceased 
closed his eyes. Gen. xlvi, 4. The corpse was washed with 
water, and, except when buried immediately, was laid out in 
an upper room or chamber. 2 Kings iv, 21 ; Acts ix, 37. 
The Egyptians embalmed the body. There were three 
methods of embalming, and these were determined by the 
condition and circumstances of the person deceased. The 
first method was adopted in embalming the bodies of Jacob 
and Joseph, which was very costly. Gen. 1, 2-26. Herodo- 
tus says that the process consisted in removing the intestines, 
and washing the internal portion of the body with the wine 
of the palm-tree, and then anointing it with a composition 
of myrrh, cassia, salt of nitre, &c. The brain was also re- 
moved, and the cavity filled with aromatic substances. The 
whole body was then wrapped around with linen, and each 
member was also bound separately, in the same manner. 
The process of embalming occupied thirty days. Genesis 
1, 2-26. The other two modes took a much less time. After 
the embalming, the body was placed in a sarcophagus of 
sycamore- wood, resembling, in shape, the human form, and 
was in this way preserved in the house, sometimes for ages, 
leaning against the wall. Exod. xiii, 19 ; Josh, xxiv, 32. 

The Hebrews were accustomed to wrap linen round the 
body, and place the head in a napkin. John xi, 44. They 
also placed, in the folds of the linen, aromatic substances. 
Matt, xxvi, 6-14 ; xxvii, 59 ; John xix, 39, 40 ; xx, 7 ; xi, 44 ; 
Mark xiv, 8 ; Acts ix, 37. 

Funeral ceremonies were different in different countries. 
Not to inter the corpse, was considered a mark of great in- 
dignity. The patriarchs buried their dead in a few days af- 
ter death. Gen. xxiii, 2-4 ; xxv, 9 ; xxxv, 29. Their pos- 
terity in Egypt deferred burial. In a subsequent age, the 






BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 173 

Jews imitated the Persians, and buried the body soon after 
death. Acts v, 6-10. The interment of Tabitha was delayed 
on account of sending for Peter. A box or coffin was not 
used for the dead, except in Egypt and Babylon. The 
corpse was wrapped in folds of linen, and placed upon a 
bier, which was carried by four persons. In the time of 
Christ, the bearers travelled very rapidly. Luke vii, 14. 

Sepulchres, otherwise called the everlasting houses, were 
situated beyond the limits of cities and villages. Isa. xiv, 18 ; 
Eccles. xii, 5; Luke vii, 12; Matt, viii, 28. Kings were 
allowed to repose within cities. 1 Sam. xxviii, 3 ; 2 Kings 
xxi, 18 ; 2 Chron. xvi, 14 ; xxiv, 16. The sepulchres of the 
Hebrew kings were on Mount Zion. With the exception 
of the burial of kings, the Hebrews chose gardens. Gen. 
xxiii, 17 ; xxxv, 8. Sepulchres were the property of a single 
person, or a number of families united together. Gen. xxiii, 
4-20; 1, 13. To be buried in the sepulchre of one's fathers 
was a distinguished honor, and to be excluded therefrom as 
signal a disgrace. Kings who had incurred the hatred of 
the people were not permitted to be buried in the royal 
tombs. To be buried like an ass, without mourning or 
lamentation, was considered a very great disgrace. Jer. xxii, 
16-19; xxxv, 30. 

Sepulchres of the common class of people were mere ex- 
cavations in the earth. Persons of rank and wealth had 
vaults or crypts. Gen. xxiii, 6 ; Matt xxiii, 27-29 ; xxvii, 
52, 53. The entrance to these tombs was by a descent 
down a number of steps. The interior contained niches or 
cells for the bodies. The entrance was closed by a stone, 
door, or slab. Psa. v, 9; John xi, 38; xx, 5-11; Matt, 
xxviii, 2 ; Mark xvi, 3, 4. The doors of sepulchres were 
painted white on the last month (Adar) of every year. The 
object of the practice was to warn all who came to the Feast 
of the Passover not to approach, lest they should be con- 
taminated. Matt, xxiii, 27 ; Luke xi, 14. 

Mention is made of sepulchral monuments — \lvt\\l€Iqv — 



174 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

from the time of Abraham down to the time of Christ. 
Gen. xxiii, 6 ; xxxv, 20 ; 2 Kings xxiii, 16, 17 ; Matt, xxiii, 27. 
These consisted of stones, hewn and ornamented with an 
inscription. Sometimes heaps of stones were piled up, and 
these were constantly added to. The pyramids of Egypt 
are supposed to be monuments of kings. 

The ancient Hebrews considered the burning of the body 
as a matter of great reproach, and rarely did so, unless they 
wished to inflict the greatest ignominy. Gen. xxxviii, 24. 
The body of Saul was burnt by the inhabitants of Jabesh 
Gilead, to preserve it from further disgrace. 1 Sam. xxxi, 12. 
The sentiment in regard to the burning of bodies was 
changed at a later period. One hundred and forty years 
after Saul, King Asa was burnt with many aromatic sub- 
stances, as a mark of honour. After this, not to be burnt 
was more a mark of disgrace than honour. 2 Chron. xvi, 14 ; 
xxi, 19; Amos vi, 10; Jer. xxxiv, 5. After the captivity 
the Jews conceived a great hatred to this rite. 

The mourning of the Orientals, on account of the dead, 
was extreme. As soon as a person dies, all the females of 
the family, with a loud voice, set up a sorrowful cry. They 
continue it as long as they can, without taking breath. 
This they continue for eight days. Until the corpse is carried 
away, the women who are related to the deceased sit on the 
ground, in a circle. The wife, or daughter, or other nearest 
relation of the deceased, occupies the centre, and each one 
holds in her hand a napkin. Eulogists are present, to chant, 
in mournful strains, the virtues of the dead. When the one 
who sat in the centre gave the sign with her napkin, the 
persons who recalled the memory of the departed remained 
silent ; the rest of the females rose, and, wrapping together 
their napkins, ran like mad persons. The nearest relative re- 
mained in her position, tearing her hair, and wounding her 
breast, arms, and face, with her nails. Gen. 1, 3 ; Numbers 
xx, 29; Deut. xxxiv, 8; 1 Sam. xxxi, 13. The lamentations 
began, Alas ! alas ! my brother ! or, Alas ! alas ! my sister ! 



5t. 

* 

Ml 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 175 

If the king were dead, it was, Alas! alas! the king! 

1 Kings xiii, 29, 30 ; 2 Chron. xxxv, 25 ; 2 Sam. i, 12. It was 
customary for the women to go to the tomb, and pour out 
their lamentations there. John xi, 31. Another indication 
of grief consisted in rending the garment. Gen. xxxvii, 34 ; 
Judges xi, 35 ; 2 Sam. i, 2 ; iii, 31 ; 2 Kings v, 7, 8 ; vi, 30. 
The Hebrews, when in mourning, sometimes walked with 
their shoes off and their heads uncovered. They refused to 
bathe, anoint themselves, or converse with people; they 
scattered dust and ashes into the air, or placed them on their 
heads, or lay down in them. Job i, 20 ; ii, 12 ; Lev. x, 6; 
xiii, 45 ; xxi, 10 ; 2 Sam. i, 2-4 ; xiv, 2 ; xv, 30 ; Jer. vi, 26. 
They struck their hands together, threw them up towards the 
sky, smote their breast and thigh, and stamped with the 
foot. 2 Sam. xiii, 19 ; Jer. xxxi, 19 ; Ezek. vi, 11 ; xxi, 12 ; 
Esth. iv, 1-3. They fasted, abstained from wine, and avoided 
mingling in festivals. 2 Sam. i, 11, 12; iii, 35; xii, 16; 
Jer. xxv, 34. Elegies were composed on the death of dis- 
tinguished individuals. 2 Sam. iii, 33. Refreshments were 
furnished, after the burial, for mourners, which was denomi- 
nated the bread of bitterness and the cup of consolation. 

2 Sam. iii, 35 ; Jer. xvi, 4-7 ; Hosea ix, 4 ; Ezek. xxiv, 16, 17. 
Public calamities, such as famines, pestilences, incursions of 
enemies, defeat in war, &c, were occasions of mourning. 
Ezek. xxvi, 1-18 ; xxvii, 1-36 ; xxx, 2, et seq. ; xxxii, 2-32 ; 
Amos v, 1, et seq. Fast days were days of grief. Jonah 
iii, 5-7. It was customary for a person to rend his clothes 
when he heard blasphemy. 



176 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

CHAPTER II. 
POLITICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 

The posterity of Jacob, while remaining in Egypt, maintained 
the patriarchal form of government. Every father of a family 
exercised a father's authority over those of his own house- 
hold. Every tribe obeyed its own prince, who was originally 
the first-born of the founder of the tribe, but, in progress of 
time, appears to have been elected. As the people increased 
in numbers, various heads of families united, in order to form 
a compact, and selected some individual from their own body 
as a leader. Num. iii, 24, 30, 35. The number thus asso- 
ciated was sometimes more and sometimes less than a thou- 
sand. 1 Sam. x, 19 ; xxiii, 23 ; Judg. vi, 15 ; Num. xxvi, 5-50. 
Princes and heads of families are mentioned under the 
common names of seniors, or senators, and heads of tribes. 
The princes of the tribes at first kept the genealogical tables, 
but subsequently they employed scribes, who, in the end, 
took part in the government of the nation. Exod. v, 1 4, 1 5, 1 9. 
It was by magistrates of this description that the Hebrews 
were governed in Egypt, and the Egyptian kings made no 
objection to it. Exod. iii, 16 ; v, 1, 14, 15, 19. 

The posterity of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were set 
apart for the great object of preserving the true religion. 
Gen. xii, 3; xvii, 9, 14; xviii, 18; xxii, 18; xxviii, 14. 
They were separated from idolatrous nations, and confined to 
a small extent of country. Those of them who had been 
tainted with Egyptian idolatry, were to be brought back 
again to the knowledge of the true God. The fundamental 
principle of the Mosaic institutions was to develop the great 
truth, that the one living and true God, the Creator and 
Governor of the universe, should alone be worshipped. To 
secure this, God, through the instrumentality of Moses, of- 
fered himself as a king to the Hebrews, and was accepted 






BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 1*7 7 

by the united voice of their community, and the land of Ca- 
naan was hence declared to be the land of Jehovah . In consid- 
eration of their acknowledgment of God as their Ruler, they 
were bound, like the Egyptians, to pay a twofold tithe. 
Exod. xix, 4-8 ; Lev. xxvii, 20-34; Num. xviii, 21, 22 ; Deut. 
xii, 17-19 ; xiv, 22-29 ; xxvi, 12-15. God was their law- 
giver. Exod. xx. The people were taught that the tabernacle 
was not only the temple of Jehovah, but the palace of their 
king — that the table supplied with wine and shew-bread was 
the royal table — that the altar was the place where the pro- 
visions of the monarch were prepared — that the priests were 
the royal servants, and were bound to attend not only to 
sacred but secular affairs, and were to receive as their salary 
the first tithes, which the people, as subjects, were led to 
consider a part of that revenue which was due to God, their 
immediate sovereign. The commission of idolatry, by any 
inhabitant of Palestine, was regarded as a defection from the 
true king. It was, in fact, treason, and was considered a 
crime equal in aggravation to that of murder, and was, con- 
sequently, attended with the severest punishment. Incan- 
tation, necromancy, and similar practices, were looked upon 
as arts of a kindred aspect with idolatry itself, and were 
punished in the same way. The law, with the penalty at- 
tached to it, had reference only to the overt acts of idolatry. 
Deut. xiii. 2-19 ; xvii, 2-5. It was not so much a religious 
as a civil law. 

The Mosaic ceremonies were instituted to preserve the He- 
brews from being seduced by idolatrous nations around them, 
and to preserve their integrity to their God and king. Though 
debarred by their rites from any close intimacy with these 
nations, they were obliged to extend to them the rites of 
hospitality, and, under certain restrictions, were allowed to 
form friendly treaties. The following nations were excepted : 

1. The Canaamtes, including the Philistines, not of Ca- 
naanitish origin. They were neither to be admitted to treaty 
nor to servitude, but to be destroyed by war or driven from 

8* 



1*78 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATUBE. 

the country. This was not only to be done because they 
unjustly retained the pasture-grounds of the patriarchs, but 
because they were idolaters, and hence traitors to God. Ex- 
odus xxih, 32, 33 ; xxxiv, 12-16 ; Deut. vii, 1-11 ; xx, 1-18. 
The Phoenicians were not included in this hostility, as they 
dwelt on the northern shore of their country, and were shut 
up within their own limits. 

2. The Amalekites or Canaanites of Arabia Petraia were 
in like manner to be destroyed with universal slaughter. 
This was to be done because they had attacked the weak 
and weary Hebrews in their journey through Arabia, and 
because the robberies which were committed by them on 
the southern borders of Palestine could not be restrained in 
any other way. Exodus xvii, 8-14; Deuteronomy xxv, 1*7; 
Judges vi, 3-5 ; 1 Sam. xv, 1 ; xxvii, 8, 9, and the 30th 
chapter. 

3. The Moabites and Ammonites were to be excluded for- 
ever from the right of treaty or citizenship with the Hebrews, 
but were not to be attacked in war. Deut. ii, 9-19 ; xxiii, 7. 
The reason given that this middle course should be preserved 
was, that they had granted a passage through their country, 
though they refused to supply them with provisions. Deut. 
ii, 29 ; xxiii, 5. They afterwards invited Balaam to curse 
the Hebrews, and finally they allured them to idolatry. Deut. 
xxiii, 3-8. They ultimately crushed the Midianites, who had 
conspired with the Moabites in their plans, in a war of dread- 
ful severity. Num. xxv, 16, IT; xxxi, 1-24. War was car- 
ried into the country of the Ammonites in consequence of 
the kings Og and Sihon refusing a free passage to the He- 
brews, and they were subdued. 

Moses, by the advice of Jethro, his father-in-law, increased 
the number of rulers by the appointment of an additional 
number of judges. Some were to judge over ten, some over 
fifty, some over a hundred, and some over a thousand. 
Exodus xviii, 13-26. These judges were elected by the 
people from among the rulers and princes. They occupied 



BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 179 

a subordinate rank to Moses and the high-priest, who consti- 
tuted the ultimate appeal. 

The various civil officers, such as heads of families, judges, 
genealogists, elders or senators, princes of the tribes, &c, 
were dispersed, as a matter of course, in different parts of 
the country. Those who dwelt in the same city or neigh- 
bourhood formed the comitia, senate, or legislative assembly 
of their immediate vicinity. Deut. xix, 12 ; xxv, 8, 9 ; Judg. 
viii, 14 ; ix, 3-46 ; xi, 5 ; 1 Sam. viii, 4 ; xvi, 4. When all 
of those who dwelt in any particular tribe were assembled, 
they constituted the legislative assembly of the tribe ; and 
when they were convened in one body from all the tribes, 
they constituted the general assembly of the nation, and 
were the representatives of all the people. Judg. i, 1-11 ; 
xi, 5; xx, 12-24; Josh, xxiii, 1, 2 ; xxiv, 1. The priests, 
who were a learned class in the community, and, besides, 
were hereditary officers in the state — being set apart for civil 
as well as religious purposes — had, by the divine command, 
a right to sit in this assembly. Exod. xxxii, 29 ; Num. 
xxxvi, 13 ; viii, 5-26. 

Each tribe was governed by its own rulers, and, to a cer- 
tain extent, constituted a civil community, independent of 
the other tribes. Judg. i, 21, 27, 33; xx, 11-46; 2 Sam. 
ii, 4. Any affair concerning the whole or many of 
the tribes was determined in the legislative assembly of the 
.nation. Judg. xi, 1-11; 1 Chron. v, 10, 18, 19; 2 Sam. 
iii, 17; 1 Kings xii, 1-24. All the tribes were bound to- 
gether by reciprocal ties. Rivalries sometimes existed among 
the tribes, especially between Judah, to which belonged the 
right of primogeniture, and the rest ; and also the tribe of 
Joseph, which had a double portion. Gen. xlix, 8-10; 
xlviii, 5, 6. From these rivalries a schism arose, in progress 
of time, which finally sundered the nation. 1 Kings xii. 

The Legislative Assembly, or Congress of the nation, was 
convened by the judge or ruler for the time being, or, in his 
absence, the high-priest. Num. x, 2-4 ; Judg. xx, 1, 27, 28 ; 



180 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITEKATURE. 

Josh, xxiii, 1, 2. The place of assembling was the door of 
the tabernacle; sometimes other places were selected. Josh, 
xxiv, 1 ; 1 Sam. xi, 14, 15 ; 1 Kings xii, 1. While the 
Hebrews were in the desert of Arabia, the assembly was con- 
vened by the blowing of trumpets. After they were settled 
in Palestine, the members were notified of the meeting by 
messengers. 

To these assemblies Moses, from time to time, announced 
the commands of God, which were afterwards communicated 
to the people by the genealogists or scribes. In these as- 
semblies the rights of sovereignty were exercised, wars were 
declared, peace was concluded, treaties were ratified, civil 
rulers and generals, and eventually kings, were chosen. 
The oath of office was administered to its members by the 
judge, or the king of the state; and the latter, in turn, 
received their oath from the assembly acting in the name of 
the people. Exod. xix, 7 ; xxiv, 2-8 ; Josh, ix, 15-21 ; Judg. 
xx, 1, 11, 14; xxi, 13-20; 1 Sam. x, 24; xi, 14; 2 Sam. 
xi, 14 ; ii, 4 ; in, 17-19 ; v, 1-3 ; 1 Kings xii. The assem- 
bly acted without instructions from the people, on their own 
authority, and according to their own views, and the people 
did not exhibit any disposition to interfere with their 
deliberations; still the assembly referred their decisions to 
them for ratification. 1 Sam. xi, 14, 15 ; Josh, viii, 33 ; 
xxiii, 2, et seq. ; xxiv, 1, et seq. When God was chosen as 
king, it was not done by the assembly, but by the people 
themselves, all of whom, as well as their rulers, took the oath 
of obedience, even to the women and children. Exod. 
xxiv, 3-8; Deut. xxix, 9-14. 

God, as the chosen king of the Hebrews, enacted laws, 
decided litigated points of importance, answered and solved 
questions, threatened punishment, and actually inflicted it, 
in some instances, on the hardened and impenitent. Num. 
xvii, 1-11; xxvii, 1-11; xxxvi, 1-10; xv, 32; xi, 33-35; 
xii, 1-15; xvi, 1-50; Josh, vii, 16-22; Judg. i, 1, 2,; xx, 
18, 27, 28; 1 Sam. xiv, 37; xxiii, 9-12; xxx, 8; Lev. 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 181 

xxvi, 3-46 ; Deut. xxvi and xxx. The form of government, 
which is denominated theocratical, was of a nature well 
suited to the character of that age. Although the form was 
a theocracy, it was nevertheless not destitute of the usual 
forms of civil government. The political affairs were con- 
ducted by the elders and princes. It was to them Moses 
gave the divine commands, determined expressly their 
powers, and submitted their requests to the decision of God. 
Num. xiv, 5 ; xvi, 4, et seq. ; xxvii, 5 ; xxxvi, 5, 6. The 
influence possessed by the people was such, that the Hebrew 
government may properly be denominated a democracy. 
Exod. xix, 7-8 ; xxiv, 3-8 ; Deut. xxix, 9-14 ; Josh, ix, 
18, 19 ; xxiii, 1 ; xxiv, 2 ; 1 Sam. x, 24 ; xi, 14, 15 ; Num. 
xxvii, 1-8 ; xxxvi, 1-9. In some respects, however, it as- 
sumed the aristocratical form. 

The part sustained by Moses in the government was that 
of a mediator, or internuncio between God and the people ; 
he was also in a distinguished sense their leader. Joshua 
became the successor of Moses in leading the Israelites into 
Canaan. After this office ceased, by the death of Joshua, 
judges or governors were appointed. 1 Sam. viii, 20 ; Isa. 
xi, 4 ; 1 Kings iii, 9. In the time of Samuel the govern- 
ment, in point of form, was changed into a monarchy ; the 
election of king, however, was committed to God, who chose 
one by lot, so that God was still the ruler, and the king the 
vicegerent. The terms of government, as respected God, 
were the same as before, and the same duties and principles 
were inculcated. 1 Sam. viii, 7 ; x, 17-23 ; xii, 14, 15, 20, 
22, 24, 25. When Saul did not obey the commands of God, 
the kingdom was taken from him and given to another. 
1 Sam. xiii, 5-14; xv, 1-31. Under this form of govern- 
ment the true religion was preserved, and propagated to other 
nations, as was promised. 



182 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 



Kings , Officers of State, fyc. 

When we hear of the anointing of Jewish kings, we are to 
understand by it the same as their inauguration. 2 Sam. 
ii, 4 ; v, 3. As far as we are informed, however, unction, as 
a sign of investiture with the royal authority, was bestowed 
only upon the first two kings who ruled the Hebrews, viz., 
Saul and David, and subsequently upon Solomon and Joash, 
whose right to the succession was in danger of being dis- 
puted. 1 Sam. x, 24 ; 2 Sam. ii, 4 ; v, 1-3 ; 1 Chron. 
xi, 1, 2; 2 Kings xi, 12-20; 2 Chron. xxiii, 1-21. The 
ceremonies of inauguration were as follows : — 

1. The king, surrounded with soldiers, was conducted into 
some public place — latterly the temple — and was there 
anointed with sacred oil by the high-priest. The kings of 
Israel were not anointed because they could not obtain the 
sacred oil, and no other would answer the purpose. 

2. It appears from 2 Sam. i, 10, Ezek. xxi, 26, and Psa. 
xlv, 6, that a sceptre was placed in the hand of the monarch 
at his inauguration, and a diadem was placed on his head. 

3. The covenant which defined and fixed the principles 
according to which the government was to be conducted, 
and likewise the laws of Moses, were presented to him, and 
he accordingly took an oath that he would rule according 
to the principles of that covenant and the Mosaic Law. 

1 Sam. x, 25 ; 2 Sam. v, 3 ; 1 Chron. xi, 3 ; 2 Kings xi, 2 ; 

2 Chron. xxiii, 11 ; Deut. xvii, 18. The principal men of 
the kingdom, princes, elders, <kc, promised obedience, and, in 
proof of their pledge, they kissed either the feet or knees 
of the person inaugurated. Psa. ii, 13. 

4. After the ceremonies were completed, the king was 
conducted into the city with great pomp, amid the acclama- 
tions of the people and the cries of Long live the King ! 
Sacrifices, and subsequently feasts, were observed, as a con- 
firmation of the oath which had been taken. 1 Kings i, 1, 11, 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 183 

19, 24, 34, 39, 40 ; 2 Kings xi, 12-19 ; 2 Chron. xxiii, 11 ; 
Matt, xxi, 1-11 ; John xii, 3. 

5. Finally, the king is seated upon the throne, and receives 
the congratulations usually presented. 1 Kings i, 35-48 ; 
2 Kings ix, 13; xi, 19. 

The robe which was worn by kings was costly and 
gorgeous, and the retinue was large and splendid. Ezek. 
xxviii, 13-20 ; 1 Kings iv. The materials of which the robe 
was made was fine white linen or cotton, though the usual 
colour was purple, rrogcpvga feat fivooog. The diadem was 
costly and splendid, and among the Persians was decorated 
with gems and pearls. It was composed of a band two 
inches broad, bound around the head and tied behind. 
Crowns were likewise in use. 2 Sam. xii, 30 ; Zech. vi, 11-14 ; 
Psa. xxi, 3. In form they somewhat resemble the mitre. 

The throne was a seat with a back and arms, and of so 
great a height as to render a footstool necessary. Gen. xii, 40 ; 
Psa. ex, 1. The throne of Solomon, which consisted wholly 
of gold, ornamented with ivory, was a little curved in the 
back, and near each arm was placed the figure of a lion. 
1 Kings x, 18-20; 2 Chron. ix, 17. This throne was 
elevated six steps, on which were twelve lions. It was cus- 
tomary for the high priest, previous to the time of the 
monarchy, to occupy an elevated seat. 1 Sam. i, 9; iv, 18. 
Both the throne itself, and sitting upon the throne, are used 
tropically to denote power and government. 2 Sam. iii, 10 ; 
Psa. ix, 7 ; lxxxix, 44 ; Isa. xlvii, 1 . In some passages a 
throne is assigned to God, not only as the king of the He- 
brews, but as the sovereign of the universe. Job xxiii, 3 ; 
Exod. xvii, 16 ; Isa. vi, 1 ; 1 Kings xxii, 19 ; Isa. lxvi, 1 ; 
Matt, v, 34. 

The sceptre of King Saul was a spear. 1 Sam. xviii, 10 ; 
xxii, 6. A sceptre is used tropically for royal dignity and 
authority ; and a just or righteous sceptre for a just govern- 
ment. Gen. xlix, 10 ; Num. xxiv, 7 ; Amos i, 5-8 ; Jer. 
xlviii, 17 ; Psa. xlv, 6. 



184 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

The tables of Hebrew kings indicated exorbitant luxury, 
and immense quantities of provisions were consumed. 1 Kings 
iv, 22, 23. They were set with numerous articles of gold ; 
musicians and dancing ladies were present to enliven the 
feast. Gen. xl, 20; Dan. v, 1 ; Matt, xxii, 1 ; Mark vi, 21. 
The Hebrews were in the habit, at the season of their great 
national festivals, of preparing a feast, either at the tabernacle 
or in Jerusalem, of the thank-offerings, and thus participated 
in a season of joy, in which God might be considered as the 
author. The blood of the sacrifices thus appropriated was 
shed at the foot of the altar. 

The kings of the East are very rarely seen in public. 
Among the Persians a person could not gain a sight of the 
monarch only by special invitation. Esther iv, 11. There 
was a free access, however, to the monarchs of the Jews. 
2 Sam. xviii, 4 ; xix^Y ; 2 Kings xxii, 10 ; Jer. xxxviii, 7. 
It was considered a good omen to see the face of the king. 
The tropical expression, therefore, " to see God" signifies to 
experience his favour. When the kings of Asia make long 
journeys, they send before them forerunners, or heralds, to 
prepare their way. These are called, in Persia, joyful mes- 
sengers. Mai. iii, 1 ; Isa. lxii, 10-12. The Talmudists 
contend that God has a forerunner, whom they call metatron. 
His existence and character they derive from the following 
passages. Zech. iii, 1, 3, 4, 5 ; Gen. xvi, 10-14; xxii, 15 ; 
Exod. iii, 4-20; xx, 2, 3; xxiii, 20-23; Isa. xlviii, 16; 
xliii, 14. They regard him as uncreated, and in his character 
approaches nearest to God himself. That he is the same 
being who anciently appeared to the patriarchs, and is ex- 
pressly called God. Vide Buxtorfs Chal. Talmudic and 
Rab. Lex., col. 1192. Also Appendix to Jahrfs Herme- 
neutics, Fasc. 1, pp. 58-63. 

The eastern monarchs sought for glory by building mag- 
nificent temples and palaces, and by planting gardens and 
erecting fortifications. The palace of the kings occurs in the 
most ancient times, as well as at the present day, under the 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 185 

name of the gate. 2 Sam. xv, 2 ; Dan. ii, 49 ; Esther ii, 
19-21 ; iii, 2, 3 ; Matt, xvi, 18. Kings were objects of the 
greatest veneration. 1 Sam. xxiv, 4-15 ; xxvi, 6-20. "Want 
of respect and veneration was punished with death. Magis- 
trates were sometimes called gods, both in poetry, Psa. lxxxii, 
1, 6, 7 ; cxxxviii, 1 ; and also in prose. Exod. iv, 16 ; vii, 1. 
This term is never applied to kings, except, perhaps, in Psa. 
xlv, 7, 8. Kings were called the Lord's anointed. Isa. xlv, 1. 
In poetry, the king is sometimes called the son of God, 
2 Sam. vii, 14 ; 1 Chron. xvii, 13 ; hence the inauguration of 
a king is called his birth. Psa. ii, 6, 8, 12. 

Appellatives for monarchs : — 1 . Cesar, sl general name for 
king or emperor among the Romans ; 2. Ptolemy, used in 
the same way among the more recent Egyptians ; 3. Agag, 
a common name for the kings of the Amalekites ; 4. Hadad, 
Adad, or Ben Hadad, the name of the kings of Syria; 
5. Abimelech, the same among the Philistines ; 6. Candace, 
the usual appellation of Ethiopian queens. The proper 
names Pharaoh and Darius, monarchs of Egypt and Persia, 
signify king or monarch. 

In poetry, kings are sometimes denominated shepherds, 
and sometimes the husbands of the state. The state is some- 
times called the wife of the king, sometimes a virgin, and 
sometimes the mother of the citizens. It is likewise repre- 
sented as a widow, and in some instances as childless. God 
is represented as the husband of the Hebrew state, and 
the state as his spouse ; and hence, whenever she became 
idolatrous, she was denominated an adulteress or a for- 
nicatress. 

The Hebrews were accustomed to expect of their kings the 
fulfilment of two offices — those of judge and chieftain. 
1 Sam. viii, 5; xii, 12; 2 Chron. xxvi, 21; Isa. xvi, 5. 
Kings tried appeals from judges. 2 Sam. xv, 2 ; 1 Sam. xvii, 
9-19. The powers and prerogatives of kings were regulated 
by the institutes of Moses. Laws, prophecies, and instruc- 
tions were usually promulgated in the temple. Jer. vii, 2, 3 ; 



186 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

xi, 6 ; xvii, 19, 20 ; xxxvi, 9-19 ; John x, 3; Luke ii, 46 ; 
Matt, xxvi, 55 ; Mark xii, 35; Acts hi, 11 ; v, 12. Kings 
could not arbitrarily tax their subjects or require any service, 
unless legally prescribed. 1 Sam. x, 25 ; 2 Sam. v, 3. 
The sources of royal revenue were derived as follows : — 

1. Voluntary presents. 1 Sam. x, 27 ; xvi, 20. 

2. The products of the royal flocks. 1 Sam. xxi, *7, 8 ; 
2 Sam. xiii, 23; 2 Chron. xxvi, 10; xxxii, 28, 29; Gen. 
xlvii, 6. 

3. The royal mansion, vineyards, and olive gardens, which 
had been taken from a state of nature, or were the con- 
fiscated possessions of criminals, and which were cultivated 
either by slaves or conquered nations. 1 Kings xxi, 9-16 ; 
Ezek. xlvi, 16-18; 1 Chron. xxvii, 28; 2 Chron. xxvi, 10. 

4. A tenth part of the income of the Hebrews ; imposts 
and tributes, and the customary taxes. 1 Sam. xvii, 25 ; 
1 Kings iv, 4, 6, 9, 12, 13 ; 1 Chron. xxvii, 25. 

5. The spoils of conquered nations. These nations were 
also required to pay tribute of money, flocks, and grain. 
1 Kings iv, 21 ; Psa. lxxii, 10 ; 2 Chron. xxvii, 5. 

6. Tribute imposed upon merchants passing through the 
territories of the Hebrews. 1 Kings x, 15. There was also a 
tax on articles of consumption, called the excise and the toll. 
Ezek. iv, 14, 19, 20. 

Judges maintained their authority after the introduction of 
the monarchy, and acted the part of a legislative assembly 
to respective cities in or near which they resided. These, 
together with the genealogists, were appointed by the king, 
as were also other royal officers, the principal of whom were 
the following : — 

1. The royal counsellors. 2. The prophets. 3. The secre- 
tary or scribe. 4. The high-priest. The officers of the 
king's palace consisted of, 1 . The governor of the palace ; 
2. The keeper of the wardrobe; 3. The king's friend, or 
intimate ; 4. The king's life-guard. These officers, with 
their attendants, were immediately attached to the palace. 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 187 

Though Moses had interdicted the multiplication of wives 
and concubines, yet the Hebrew kings, especially Solomon, 
devoted much time and attention to the harem. No ex- 
pense was spared in decorating the persons of the women. 
These harems were kept by eunuchs, brought from foreign 
countries, as the laws of Moses forbade castration. Lev. 
xxii, 24; Deut. xxiii, 1. That they were employed at 
the Hebrew court, see 1 Kings xxii, 9 ; 2 Kings viii, 6 ; 
ix, 32, 33 ; xx, 18 ; xxiii, 11; Jer. xiii, 23; xxxviii, 7; 
xxxix, 16 ; xli, 16. 

After the subjugation of the Jews by the Romans, certain 
provinces of Judea were governed by that class of Roman 
magistrates denominated Tetrarchs, The tetrarch was, of 
course, subordinate to the king. Matt, xiv, 1 ; Luke ix, 7 ; 
Acts xiii, 1. They were inferior in point of rank to 
ethnarcks, who were sometimes addressed as king. Matt. 
ii, 22. Procurators were sometimes Roman knights, and 
sometimes the freedmen of the emperor. Felix was one of 
the latter class. Acts xxiii, 24, 26 ; xxiv, 3, 22, 27. Festus 
also belonged to this class. The business of a procurator 
was to exact tribute, administer justice, and repress seditions. 
They possessed the power of life and death. The military 
force granted to the procurators of Judea consisted of six 
cohorts, five of which were stationed at Cesarea, and one at 
Jerusalem, in the castle of Antonia. 

Revenues were collected by publicans or Roman knights, 
who took their stations at the gates of cities and public ways, 
and at the place called for that purpose the receipt of custom, 
where they examined the goods that passed in, and received 
the duty that w^as to be paid. Matt, ix, 9 ; Mark ii, 14 ; Luke 
v, 27-29. In consequence of their extortion, they were 
regarded as great sinners. Luke iii, 13; Mark ii, 15, 16." 
The Pharisees would have no communication with them ; 
and one ground of their reproaches against the Saviour was, 
that he associated with them. Matt, v, 46, 47 ; ix, 10, 11 ; 
■xi, 19 ; xviii, 17 ; xxi, 31, 32. 



188 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

The half-shekel tax was required to be paid annually by 
every Jew in the temple. This tax must be paid in Jewish 
coin. Matt, xxii, 17-19. It was this that led money-changers 
to take their places in the temple, for the purpose of ex- 
changing Roman and Greek coins for Jewish half-shekels. 
The acquisition of property in this way was contrary to the 
law, (Deut. xxiii, 20, 21,) and hence Jesus drove them from 
the temple. Jews were appointed in Judea to collect the 
taxes, and also among foreign nations from their brethren, 
which they sent up yearly to Jerusalem. 

Trials and Punishments. 

The judicial establishment was reorganized after the cap- 
tivity, and two classes of judges, inferior and superior, were 
appointed. Ezra vii, 25. The more difficult cases, however, 
and the appeals, were brought before the ruler of the state 
or the high priest. 

The Sanhedrim was instituted in the time of the Maccabees, 
and was composed of seventy-two members. The high priest 
generally sustained the office of president in this tribunal. 
He was assisted by two vice-presidents, one of whom sat on 
the right and the other on the left. It was composed of the 
following members : — viz., chief priests, elders, and scribes, 
or learned men. These latter were elected, as also the elders, 
from the classes to which they belonged. The Sanhedrim 
had also secretaries. The assembly met in a rotunda, half 
of which was within, and the other half without the temple. 
The members were seated in a semi-circular form, and the 
president, vice-president, and secretaries occupied the centre. 
Appeals and other weighty matters were brought before this 
tribunal. Its power was limited by the Romans in the time 
of Christ ; but still it was in the habit of sending its legates 
to the synagogues in foreign countries, (Acts ix, 2,) and 
retained the right of passing sentence of condemnation, though 
the power of executing the sentence was taken from it and 
lodged with the Roman procurator. John xviii, 31. This 



BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 189 

Sanhedrim is not to be confounded with the seventy-two 
counsellors appointed to assist Moses in the wilderness. 

There was also in every city a tribunal of seven judges? 
denominated in the New Testament icpioig, or the judgment 
Matt, v, 22. There were courts, also, of twenty-three judges,' 
which merely tried questions of a religious nature, and sen- 
tenced to no other punishment than "forty stripes save one? 
2 Cor. xi, 24. 

The time at which courts were held, and cases heard, was 
in the morning, Jer. xxi, 12 ; Psa. ci, 8. It was not lawful 
to try causes of a capital nature in the night, or to execute 
the sentence on the same day on which the trial was had. 
This law was, however, -set at defiance in the crucifixion of 
Christ. Matt, xxvi, 5.7; John xviii, 13-18. 

The place for judicial trials, in ancient times, was the gate 
of the city. Gen. xxiii, 10, et seq. ; Deut. xxi, 19 ; xxv, 6, 7 ; 
Ruth iv, 1 , et seq, ; Psa. cxxvii, 5. The Greek forum, dyogd, 
was also a place for trial. The "Areopagus, dpecog ndyog, 
i. e., the hill of Mars, was so called because justice was 
said to have been pronounced there against Mars. Acts 
xvii, 19. 

Originally trials were everywhere very summary, except 
in Egypt, where the accuser committed the charge to writing, 
and the accused replied in writing, which was again repeated 
before decision. Job xiv, 17. Moses pursued the summary 
course, and made God a witness to the judicial transaction. 
He interdicted, in the most express terms, gifts or bribes 
intended to corrupt the judges. Exod. xxii, 20, 21 ; xxiii, 1-9 ; 
Lev. xix, 15 ; Deut. xxiv, 14, 15. A trial was conducted in 
the following manner : — 1st. The accuser and accused were 
brought face to face. Deut. xxv, 1. A secretary was present, 
who wrote down the proceedings. Isa. x, 1, 2 ; Jeremiah 
xxxii, 1-14. 2d. The accuser was denominated Satan, or the 
adversary. Zech. iii, 1-3 ; Psa. cix, 6. The judge, or judges, 
were seated, and the accuser and accused stood before him, 
the one on the right and the other on the left. 3d. The 



190 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

witnesses were sworn, and in capital cases the parties con- 
cerned. 1 Sam. xiv, 37-40; Matt, xxvi, 63. To establish 
the charges alleged, two witnesses were necessary besides 
the accuser. The witnesses were examined separately, and 
the person accused had a right to be present when their 
testimony was given in. Num. xxxv, 30; Deut xvii, 1-15 ; 
Matt, xxvi, 59. 4th. Parties made use of the lot in deter- 
mining points of difficulty between them. The sacred lot of 
Urim and Thummim was anciently resorted to to detect the 
guilty. Josh, vii, 14-24; 1 Sam. xiv. 5th. Very soon after 
the completion of the trial the sentence was pronounced. 
Josh, vii, 22, et seq. ; 1 Sam. xxii, 19 ; 1 Kings ii, 23. 

As the execution so soon followed, there was no need of 
prisons. They are not to be found in Persia at the present 
day. It was customary to confine prisoners in the house of 
the judge. Gen. xl, 3, 4. The instrument of punishment 
mentioned in Job xiii, 27; xxxiii, 11, the stocks, was prob- 
ably of Egyptian origin. There were a great variety of 
prisons, employed both for the detention and punishment 
of criminals. Jer. xxxvii, 15-20. The Jews imprisoned for 
debt They sometimes inflicted tortures and stripes. 
Matt, xviii, 34 ; Acts xvi, 23. The Romans sometimes 
fastened their criminals by one or both hands to a soldier ; 
such remained in their own houses. Acts xxviii, 16. Keepers, 
or jailors, who allowed prisoners to escape, were subjected to 
the same punishment which had been intended for the 
prisoners. Acts xii, 19; xvi, 27. 

Those who had property due them might secure it by mort- 
gage or pledge, or by a bondsman. The creditor who took 
a pledge was not allowed to make his own selection. Deut. 
xxiv, 10, 11 ; Job xxii, 6; xxiv, 3, 7, 9. When a mill, or a 
mill-stone, or an upper garment, was given as a pledge, it 
was not to be kept over night. A debt which remained till 
the Sabbatic year was not to be exacted during that period, 
and at that time lands which had been taken for debt were 
restored to the original owner or his heirs. Prov. xxxi, 16. 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 191 

For debt, the man and his wife and children were liable to 
be sold into slavery. Pro v. xxii, 27; Micah ii, 9. 

The laws of Moses prohibited the taking of usury from a 
poor person, either for borrowed money or articles of consump- 
tion. A difficulty arose in determining who was a poor 
person, and hence the law was altered, (Deut. xxiii, 20, 21,) 
and was made to apply to all but foreigners. Deut. xv, 7-11 ; 
xxiv, 13 ; Psa. xv, 15 ; xxxvii, 21, 26 ; cxii, 5. 

Transgression of the ceremonial law, without malice pre- 
pense, could be atoned for by voluntarily offering a sacrifice. 
Num. xv, 27-31. A sin-offering means the sin itself, and 
the same of a trespass-offering. Both are expressly defined in 
Leviticus, fourth and fifth chapters. Sins are violations of 
prohibitory statutes; trespasses are violations of imperative 
statutes. The guilty person incurred the expense of the victim. 
Restitution was required. Lev. vi, 1-5; Num. v, 5-10. 

The amount of fine or indemnification was to be deter- 
mined by the injured person. Exod. xxi, 30. 

The amount to be paid to secure a commutation of 
punishment, was to be determined by the avenger of blood. 
Exod. xxi, 28-31. 

If two men, contending with each other, injured a woman 
with child, so as to produce premature birth, the fine was to 
be determined by the husband and the judge. 

If a servant was slain by an unruly bull, known to be such 
by the owner, he was obliged to pay thirty shekels. Exod. 
xxi, 32; Deut. xxii, 19. These fines were all paid to the 
person injured, and not to the State. 

The restitution required in case of theft was double the 
amount taken. Exod. xxii, 3, 6, 8. In case of a sheep it 
was fourfold, and of an ox fivefold. Exod. xxii, 1. If the 
thief were unable to make restitution, he and his wife and 
children were sold into slavery. Exod. xxii, 2 ; 2 Kings iv, 1 ; 
Gen. xliii, 19; xliv, 17. 

Capital punishment was decreed only against a thief who 
had stolen anything that was accursed. Josh, vii, 25. Who- 



192 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

ever slew a thief who was attempting to break open a house 
at night, went unpunished. Exod. xxii, 1. 

Corporal punishment was inflicted with the rod, or 
scourging. Lev. xix, 20; Deut. xxii, 18; xxv, 2, 3. The 
dignity or high standing of a person liable to this punish- 
ment could not avert it. Prov. x, 13; xvii, 26; Jeremiah 
xxxvii, 15-20 ; Psa. lxxxix, 32. Scorpions, or thongs set with 
sharp iron spikes, called by the Romans horribilia, were 
applied as a torture only by those who had no relentings of 
heart, especially by cruel masters in the punishment of slaves. 
1 Kings xii, 11. Scourging was a punishment inflicted by 
the lash upon the bare back. This kind of punishment 
could not be inflicted on a Roman citizen. Acts xvi, 22, 25, 
30, 37. The eyes of rebellious kings were sometimes put 
out. Jer. lii, 11 ; 2 Kings xxv, 7. 

If a man in a fight wounded another, so as to disable him, 
he was bound to make indemnification. Exod. xxi, 18, 19. 
If injury was intentionally done to any member of the body, 
or life was taken away, life was rendered for life, eye for eye, 
tooth for tooth, burning for burning, wound for wound, hand 
for hand, foot for foot. Exod. xxi, 23-25 ; Lev. xxiv, 19-22. 
A false witness, according to the law of retaliation, was to 
receive the same punishment which was decreed against the 
crime concerning which he had falsely testified. Deut. 
xix, 16-21. 

At a very early period criminals who had committed 
homicide were punished with death. Gen. ix, 6. The mode 
of execution, however, is not stated. 

Decapitation was early practised among the Egyptians. 
Gen. xl, 17-19. From the following passages, it would ap- 
pear that this mode of punishment existed among the 
Hebrews. 2 Sam. iv, 8 ; xx, 21, 22 ; 2 Kings x, 6-8 ; Matt, 
xiv, 8-12; Acts xii, 2. Beheading was not, however, 
sanctioned by the laws of Moses. The mode corresponding 
to it was slaying by the sword. Judges viii, 21 ; 1 Sam. 
xxii, 18 ; 2 Sam. i, 15 ; 1 Kings ii, 25, 29, 31, 34. 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 193 

Lapidation or stoning was a mode of punishment author- 
ized by the laws of Moses. The witnesses were ordered to 
throw the first stone, and afterwards the people. Deut. xiii, 10 ; 
xvii, 7 ; Josh, vii, 25 ; John viii, 7. The punishment of 
stoning is to be understood whenever the mode of putting to 
death is not mentioned. Lev. xx, 10; Ezek. xvi. 38-40; 
John viii, 5 ; Exod. xxxi, 14 ; xxxv, 2 ; Num. xv, 35, 36. 

To cut off from the people, means some event in divine 
providence which shall eventually terminate the life of that 
person's family. 1 Kings xiv, 10; xxi, 21 ; 2 Kings ix, 8. 
This excision, or excommunication, as Jewish interpreters 
have explained it, consists of three kinds : — 

1. Separation from the synagogue, and suspension of all 
intercourse with the Jews, and even with one's wife and 
domestics. This separation lasted thirty days. 

2. A curse was pronounced with imprecations in the 
presence of ten persons ; such were excluded from all com- 
munion whatever with their countrymen. 

3. A solemn and absolute exclusion from all intercourse 
with any other individual of the nation, and the criminal 
was handed over to the justice of God. 1 Cor. v, 5 ; 1 Tim. 
i, 20. 

Punishments which consist of posthumous insults were as 
follows : — 1. The body of the criminal who had been stoned 
was burnt. Gen. xxxviii, 24; Lev. xx, 14; xxi, 9; Joshua 
vii, 15-25. 2. The suspension of the dead body on a tree. 
Gen. xl, 17-19; Num. xxv, 4, 5 ; Deut. xxi, 22, 23. The 
body was taken down and buried on the same day. 3. Heaps 
of stones were raised, either on the dead body, or the place 
where it was buried. Josh, vii, 25, 26 ; 2 Sam. xviii, 17. 

Other punishments were introduced among the Hebrews 
at a later period from other nations. L Decapitation. 
2. Strangulation. 1 Kings xx, 31. 3. Burning alive in a 
furnace. Dan. hi; Jer. xxix, 22. 4. The lions' den. Dan. vi. 
5. Dichotomy, or cutting asunder. Dan. ii, 5 ; Luke xii, 46 ; 
Matt, xxiv, 51 ; 2 Sam. iv, 12. 6. Beating to death. This 

9 



194 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

was a punishment among the Greeks, and designed for slaves. 
Heb. xi, 35. 7. Sawing asunder. This punishment was 
practised in Persia. Isaiah was put to death in this man- 
ner. David inflicted this punishment on the inhabitants of 
Rabbath Ammon. 1 Chron. xx, 3. 8. The Romans com- 
pelled their criminals, and those taken captive in war, to 
fight with wild beasts in the amphitheatre. They were also 
compelled to contend with one another, in the manner of 
gladiators. 2 Tim. iv, 17 ; 1 Cor. xv, 32. 9. The Greeks 
and Romans threw their criminals into the sea or river. 
They were placed in a sack, and a stone tied around their 
necks. Matt, xviii, 6; Mark ix, 42. 10. Crucifixion was a 
common mode of punishment among the Persians, Cartha- 
ginians, and Romans. Servants, assassins, robbers, and reb- 
els, were sentenced to the cross. Luke xxiii, 1, 5 y 13, 15. 
The person sentenced was deprived of all his clothes, except 
something about his loins. In this state they were scourged. 
Matt, xxvii, 29 ; Mark xv, 17 ; John xix, 2-5. The crimi- 
nal was obliged to carry his own cross. The crime for which 
the person suffered was inscribed on the transverse piece, 
near the top of the perpendicular one. The victim, perfectly 
naked, was bound to the cross, and spikes were driven 
through the hands and feet In this position he remained 
until life was extinct. The corpse was not buried except by 
express permission, which was sometimes granted by the 
emperor on his birth-day ; but only to a very few. An ex- 
ception was made in favour of the Jews on account of Deut. 
xxi, 22, 23, and hence, in Judea, crucified persons were buried 
on the same day. To hasten their death for burial, some- 
times a fire was kindled beneath the cross, to suffocate the 
victim ; or their bones were broken, or a spear thrust into 
the heart. An intoxicating potion was given, to render the 
sufferer insensible to the pains. This Jesus refused. Matt, 
xxvii, 34 ; Mark xv, 23, 

The execution of those guilty of homicide devolved upon 
the brother, or next nearest relative of the deceased. If he 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 195 

did not slay the guilty person he was considered infamous. 
To prevent abuses growing out of this custom, Moses ap- 
pointed cities of refuge. Any one who had slain a person 
without malice prepense, fled to one of these cities of refuge, 
where he was to remain until the death of the high priest. 
If, upon examination, after gaining the city of refuge, a 
person should be found guilty of murder, he was delivered 
up to the avenger of blood— the altar itself could not afford 
a refuge for such. Exod. xxi, 12 ; Num. xxxv, 9-35 ; Deut.. 
xix, 1-13 ; 1 Kings ii, 28-34. 

If one is found slain, and it is not known who killed him, 
the laws of Moses ordained that the elders of the nearest 
city should take a heifer that had never been yoked, and, in 
an uncultivated valley, it shall have its head struck off, and 
the elders shall wash their hands over it, as a declaration of 
the innocence of the judges and elders, and also of the horrid 
nature of murder. 

Military Affairs. 

Various implements of war are mentioned in the Penta- 
teuch. Subsequent to Solomon military arms were improved 
in their construction, the science of fortification made ad- 
vancement, and large armies were mustered. In the second 
year after the exodus from Egypt, there was a general enrol- 
ment of all who were able to bear arms. A second enrol- 
ment was made forty years after the exodus. Num. xxvi, 2 ; 
Judg. xx ; 1 Sam. xi, 7; Exod. xvii; Num. xxxi; Josh! 
vii, 7, 11, 12. 

Whenever there was an immediate prospect of war, a levy 
was made by the genealogists. Deut. xx, 5-9 ; 2 Chron. 
xxvi, 11 ; 2 Sam. viii, 17 ; xx, 25. 

The following persons were excused from military service. 
Deut. xx, 5-8. 1. Those who had built a house, and had 
not yet inhabited it. 2. Those who had planted an olive or 
vine-garden, and had not tasted the fruit thereof. 3. Those 
who had bargained for a wife, but had not celebrated the 



196 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

nuptials ; and also those who had not lived with their wife a 
vear. 4. Those who were faint-hearted. 

The army was divided into three bands, viz., the centre, 
right and left wings. Gen. xiv, 14, 15; Job i, 17; Judg. 
vii, 16-20; 1 Sam. xi, 11; Exod. xiv, 7; xv, 4. When 
the Hebrews left Egypt, they marched in military order, in 
ranks of fifty deep. Over each rank or file was a captain. 
Other divisions consisted of a hundred, a thousand, and ten 
thousand, each of which was headed by a commander. Num. 
xxxi, 48; Deut. i, 15; Judges xx, 10; 1 Sam. viii, 12; 
xviii, 13 ; xxix, 2. The leader of the whole army was denom- 
inated the contain of the host. There was also a muster-roll 
officer and an engineer. The army of David consisted of 
two hundred and eighty thousand men. Every twenty-four 
thousand had a commander. These divisions served alter- 
nately, a month at a time. 1 Chron. xvii, 14-1 7. The gene- 
alogists had the right of appointing officers of the army. 
This practice ceased under the kings, and, when they were 
not chosen by them, the office became hereditary in the 
heads of families. Kings and generals had armour-hearers, 
chosen from the bravest of the soldiery, who bore the arms 
of their masters and carried their messages. The infantry, 
the cavalry, and chariots of war, were, so arranged as to 
make separate divisions of the army. Exod. xiv, 6, 7. The 
infantry were divided into light-armed troops and spearmen. 
Gen. xlix, 19 ; 1 Sam. xxx, 8, 15, 23 ; 2 Sam. iii, 22 ; iv, 2 ; 
xxii, 30; Psa. xviii, 30; 2 Kings v, 2. The light-armed 
infantry were furnished with a sling and javelin, with a bow, 
arrows, and quiver, and also a buckler. They fought th< 
enemy at a distance. The spearmen were armed with spears, 
swords, and shields, and fought hand to hand. 1 Chron. xii, 
24-34; 2 Chron. xiv, 8; xvii, 17. 

The Eoman soldiers were divided into legions, and each 
legion into ten cohorts, and each cohort into three bands, 
and each band into two centurions ; so that a legion con- 
sisted of thirty bands of six thousand men, and a cohort of 



: 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 197 

six hundred. Matt, xxvii, 27, 28 ; Mark xv, 16 ; Acts x, 1 ; 
xxi, 31 ; xxvii, 1. 

It is necessary to distinguish the Roman soldiers mentioned 
in the New Testament, not only from the soldiers of Herod, 
but from the band of Levites who guarded the temple, and 
had a priest of high standing for their captain. Luke xxii, 4, 52 ; 
Acts iv, 1 ; v, 24. 

The shield is first mentioned in Gen. xv, 1. The word 
frequently occurs tropically as denoting defence or protection. 
2 Sam. xxii, 31-36 ; Pro v. xxx, 5 ; Psa. xlvii, 9 ; cxiv, 2. 
Some shields were so large as to cover the whole body. They 
were of different forms, and constructed of different materials ; 
sometimes of light wood or osiers woven together and covered 
with bull's hide. The hide was oiled, to render it smooth 
and slippery, and prevent its being injured by wet. Shields 
made wholly of brass were very uncommon. They were 
sometimes covered with plates of brass, and also of silver and 
gold. 1 Kings x, 16, 17; xiv, 25-28; 2 Chron. xiii, 13-16. 
When an attack was made, the shield was held in the left 
hand; and an army was able, by joining their shields, to op- 
pose a wall, as it were, against the assaults of their foes. 
The phrases to seize the shield, &c, are used tropically to 
denote preparation for war. 2 Chron. xxv, 5 ; Job xli, 7 ; 
Ezek. xxxviii, 45 ; Jer. xlvi, 9 ; li, 11. 

The helmet was a piece of armour which covered the 
head, and was surmounted, for ornament, with a plume and 
a horse-tail. Anciently, the spearmen alone wore the hel- 
met. Uzziah furnished an armory with helmets for the use 
of his soldiers. 2 Chron. xxvi, 14. The helmet was made 
from an ox-hide, but usually covered with brass. It denoted 
tropically defence and protection. Eph. vi, 16. 

The breast-plate or coat-of-mail consisted of two parts, 

one of which covered the fore-part of the body, and the 

other the back — both pieces being united at the sides with 

clasps or buttons. The breast-plate worn by Goliath was 

i made of brass. 1 Sam. xvii, 5, 38. It was very common 



198 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

among the Hebrews after the days of David. It is also used 
tropically for defence. Isa. lix, 17 ; Eph. vi, 14 ; 1 Thess. v, 8 ; 
Rev. ix, 17. 

The girdle, from which the sword was suspended, is fre- 
quently mentioned among the articles of military dress. Isa. 
v, 27 ; Eph. vi, 14. 

Military fortifications were at first nothing more than a 
trench or ditch dug around a few cottages, on a hill or moun- 
tain, together with the mound which was formed by the 
sand dug out of it. A city of this kind was built and forti- 
fied by Cain ; for to build a city and fortify it are the same 
thing. The art of fortification was encouraged and patron- 
ized by the Hebrew kings, and Jerusalem was always well 
defended — especially Mount Zion. The principal parts of a 
fortification were as follows : — 1 . The wall. This was erected 
round cities, and was sometimes double and triple. 2 Chron. 
xxxii, 5; Jer. li, 58. The main wall terminated at the top 
in a parapet. 2. Towers, which were erected at certain dis- 
tances from each other, on the top of walls. Towers were 
also erected over the gates of cities. These were occupied 
by watchmen, who, on the approach of an enemy, blew the 
trumpet. 2 Sam. xiii, 34 ; xviii, 26, 27 ; 2 Kings ix, 17-19 ; 
Nahum ii, 1 ; 2 Chron. xvii, 2. Large towers were also 
erected in different sections of the country, on elevated 
places. They were guarded by a military force. Judg. 
viii, 9-17 ; ix, 46, 49, 51 ; Isa. xxi, 6 ; Hab. ii, 1 ; Hosea v, 8 ; 
Jer. xxxi, 6. Prophets are frequently compared to guards 
stationed in towers. Ezek. iii, 17; xxvii, 11; xxxiii, 1-9; 
Hosea xii, 13. 3. Bastions, or protections to walls. 4. The 
fosse, or an excavation by which the elevation of the walls 
was increased. 2 Sam. xx, 15. This was filled with water. 
5. The gates. These were constructed in the manner of 
valve-doors, and were secured by means of wooden bars. 
Sometimes they were covered with plates of brass or iron. 
The bars were secured by a sort of lock. Psa. cvii, 1 6 ; Isa. 
xlv, 2. 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 199 

The arms used in fighting hand to hand were a club and 
a battle-hammer. The sword was used among the Hebrews. 
2 Sam. xx, 8 ; 1 Sam. xvii, 39. The phrase to gird one's 
self with a sword, tropically denoted to commence war ; and 
to loose the sword, to finish it. Some swords had two edges. 
Psa. cxlix, 6 ; Isa. xli, 15 ; Judg. iii, 16. From its being kept 
highly polished, it was compared to lightning. Gen. iii, 24 ; 
Psa. vii, 12. A sword is also attributed to God. Wicked 
persons are represented as the sword of God. Magistrates, 
also, in the execution of justice, are represented as the sword 
of the Lord. The spear was a wooden staff, surmounted 
with an iron point. It was about eleven cubits long. Jave- 
lins were of two kinds, one larger and the' other smaller. 
They were missiles to be thrown by the hand. The bow and 
arroios are weapons of a very ancient origin. Gen. xlviii, 22 ; 
xlix, 24. Archers were very numerous in the tribes of 
Ephraim and Benjamin. The bows were made of wood, 
sometimes of brass. The strings were made of thongs of 
leather, horse-hair, and the sinews of oxen. Arrows were 
made of reeds, and surmounted with an iron point. They are 
sometimes used tropically for lightning. Psa. vii, 13; Deut. 
xxxii, 23. Quivers were pyramidal in form, and suspended 
from the back, so that the soldier could easily take therefrom 
his arrows. The sling was perhaps the most ancient weapon 
of warfare. Job xli, 28. The Benjamites were expert sling- 
ers. Judg. xx, 6 ; 1 Chron. xii, 2. Engines of war were 
erected by King Uzziah on the towers and angles of the 
walls. They were of two kinds — catapults and ballistm. 
The former were immense bows, bent by means of a ma- 
chine, which threw with great force large arrows, javelins, 
and beams of wood. The latter threw stones and balls of 
lead. Battering-rams are first mentioned by Ezek. iv, 1, 2 ; 
xxi, 22 ; xxvi, 9. They were long and large beams of wood, 
the ends of which were brass, shaped like the head of a ram. 
They were suspended, by means of a chain, in equilibrium, 
and thus, by means of soldiers, were driven against the 



200 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

wall. Those engaged in the battery were protected from the 
missiles of the enemy by a roof erected over them. Ele- 
phants were used in war, and sometimes carried a tower on 
their backs, armed with thirty soldiers. The elephants also 
fought with their proboscis. Chariots were also early used 
in war. Exod. xiv, 6, 23, 28. They could only be used, 
however, in the level country. Deut. xx, 1 ; Josh, xvii, 16-18 ; 
Judg. i, 19; ii, 7; iv, 3-7. They were used tropically 
for protection and defence of the highest kind. 2 Kings ii, 12; 
xiii, 14. They were supported on two wheels, and drawn 
by two horses, and sometimes by four abreast. The end of 
the tongue and axles were armed with iron scythes, which 
were very destructive. 

Hunting and gymnastic sports were used as preparatory 
exercises, to teach the youth skill in the use of arms, and 
thus fit them for war. The gymnasia were large edifices of 
an oblong square, with a portico. The eastern part of one 
of these piles of buildings was separated by a wall from the 
rest, and occupied more than half of the area allotted for the 
erection of the whole. A range of porticos extended round 
three sides of the interior of this part of the gymnasium, 
but the fourth side was lined with a flight of chambers — 
some for bathing, some for anointing the body, and some to 
serve as wardrobes. The middle of these chambers was de- 
nominated ephebium, where the ephebi, or youth, exercised. 
The area, or the open court, including the porticos just men- 
tioned, one range of which — that on the north side — was 
double, was denominated the palwstra, in which were wit- 
nessed games and exercises — dancing, wrestling, throwing 
the quoit, and the combat with the caestus. The western 
part of the gymnasium was an oblong, and was surrounded 
by a portico, in which the athletm exercised in unpleasant 
weather. The porticos for this purpose are called xysti, 
from which the other parts of the building, denominated 
xysta, differed in the following particulars, viz. : they were 
surrounded with rows of trees, were not covered with a roof 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 201 

at the top, and were used as places for promenading. At 
the end of the western part of the gymnasium was the sta- 
dium. It was a large semi-circle, a hundred and twenty- 
five geometrical paces long, and was furnished with seats, 
which ran around it in a circuitous manner, and ascended 
gradually one above another, for the accommodation of the 
spectators. The games which were more particularly wit- 
nessed in the stadium, were races on foot, on horseback, and 
with chariots. 

The athletse, after the fourth century before Christ, went 
wholly naked, with the exception of those who threw the 
quoit, or rode in the chariot. Heb. xii, 1. The ccestus, to 
which an allusion is made in 1 Cor. ix, 26, was a leather 
strap, bound, by the athletae, round the right hand and fin- 
gers. This strap was wide enough to receive a piece of iron 
or lead, which was rolled upon it, and was discharged, with- 
all the strength of the combatant, against his adversary. It 
became the one against whom it was discharged to be on 
the look-out, and avoid, if possible, the intended blow. 

The chariot race, which w T as run in the stadium, and from 
which Paul, in 1 Cor. ix, 24-27 ; 2 Tim. iv, 7, 8 ; Phil, 
iii, 11-14, borrows certain illustrations, w T as as follows : — Four 
chariots started at the same time for the goal, which was at the 
farther extremity of the stadium. The one who reached it 
first was the conqueror. Other competitors presented them- 
selves, and the course was run again, by four at a time, as 
in the first instance. The one who successively gained the 
victory over all, won the crown. This was woven of branches 
of evergreen. A crown of this description was given to all 
who were victorious in any contests. 1 Cor. ix, 54 ; Phil, 
iii, 14 ; Col. iii, 15 ; 2 Tim. iv, 8. Wherever the victor went 
he received a branch of palm, (Rev. vii, 9,) was robed in a 
splendid dress, and conducted home with honour. The ath- 
letse were obliged to abstain from enervating food and wine, 
and prohibited all intercourse with the other sex — not allowed 
even so much as to look upon them. If anv of the laws 

9* 



202 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

regulating the contests were violated, no award of honour 
could be given, though the person was victor. He must 
strive lawfully. 2 Tim. ii, 5 ; iv, 8. 

The Jews had a game of lifting a stone. The one who 
could raise it the highest from the ground was the victor. 

The theatre, which was introduced by Herod and his sons 
into Palestine, was an edifice constructed in such a manner 
as to describe the larger half of a circle. The games were 
exhibited in that part where a line would have passed to en- 
close precisely a semi-circle. 

Amphitheatres may be described by saying that they were 
two theatres united. They were, of course, oblong in point 
of form, and games were exhibited in the centre of them. 
The seats extended round the interior, one above another. 
In theatres of this kind comedies and tragedies were acted. 
Assemblies were also held in them, and ambassadors received. 
Actsxii, 20; xix, 29. 

Encampments. 

The art of laying out an encampment was well understood 
in Egypt before the departure of the Israelites. Moses copied 
after the Egyptians in forming encampments in the wilder- 
ness. Num. i, 53 ; iii, 21-38. The camps were guarded by 
sentinels. Judg. vii, 19 ; 1 Sam. xiv, 16 ; xxvi, 14-1 1. Mo- 
ses gives the following regulations in regard to encampments : 
1. Every unclean person shall live out of it. 2. They were 
to bury all their evacuations without the camp, that ther< 
might be no filth. 

The following was the order of marching: — As soon as 
the cloud ascended over the tabernacle, the priests sounded 
the silver trumpets. Then immediately the tribes of Judah, 
Issachar, and Zebulun, on the east, set forward. At th 
second sound, Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, on the south, fol- 
lowed. The march was next commenced by the Levites, 
who bore the parts of the tabernacle and the ark of the 
covenant. Then, at the third sound of the trumpet, followe 
Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin, from the west ; and, at 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 203 

the fourth sound, Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, from the north, 
who brought up the rear. Each one followed the particular 
standard of his corps and family. When the cloud descended 
again, the encampment was formed as before. 

Military Standards, 

1. The standard denominated degel was of four kinds. 
They were large, and ornamented with colours, in white, 
purple, crimson, and dark blue. 2. The standard called oth 
belonged to the separate classes of families. 3. The stand- 
ard called nes was not, like the others, borne from place to 
place. It was a long pole fixed in the earth. A flag was 
fastened to the top, which, floating in the wind, could be 
seen at a great distance. In order to render it visible as far 
as possible, it was erected on the tops of the highest moun- 
tains, and thus was a signal to assemble soldiers. Whenever 
it was hoisted the war-cry was uttered and trumpets were 
blown. Isa v, 26; xiii, 2; xviii, 3. 

War. 

The heathen nations consulted oracles, soothsayers, necro- 
mancers, and the lot which was ascertained by shooting ar- 
rows of different colours. 1 Sam. xxviii, 1-10 ; Isa. xli, 21-24 ; 
Ezek. xxv, 11. The Hebrews, to whom things of this kind 
were interdicted, in the early part of their history were in 
the habit of inquiring of God by means of the Urim and 
Thummim. Judg. i, 1 ; xx, 27, 28 ; 1 Sam. xxiii, 2 ; xxviii, 6 ; 
xxx, 8. After the times of David, the kings of Pales- 
tine, according to the different characters which they sus- 
tained, consulted true prophets, and sometimes false prophets, 
in respect to the issues of war. 1 Kings xxii, 6-13 ; 2 Kings 
xix, 2, et seq.; 20, et seq. Sacrifices were offered, in which 
the soldiers were said to consecrate themselves to war. Isa. 
xiii, 3; Jer. vi, 4; li, 27; Joel iii, 9; Obad i. There are 
instances of formal declarations of war, and sometimes of 
previous negotiations. 2 Kings xiv, 8 ; 2 Chron. xxv, 1 7 ; 



204 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Judg. xi, 22-28; 2 Sam. x, 1-12. Military expeditions 
commonly commenced in the spring, (2 Sam. xi, 1,) and 
continued in the summer. War is considered by the Orien- 
tals as a judgment sent from heaven. They considered that 
God granted victory only to those whose cause was just. 
2 Chron. xx, 12; Isa. lxvi, 15, 16. 

Before battle the various kinds of arms were put in the 
best order ; the shields were anointed, and the soldiers re- 
freshed themselves by taking food. Jer. xlvi, 3, 4 ; Isa. xxi, 5. 
The generals and kings were clothed in splendid habiliments, 
denominated the sacred dress, Psa. ex, 3. The army was 
drawn up so as to form a phalanx. It was the duty of the 
priests, before battle, to exhort the Hebrews to exhibit that 
courage which the occasion required. Deut. xx. 2, et seq. 
This, in more recent times, was done by generals and kings. 
The last ceremony previous to engagement, after the offering 
of sacrifices, was the sounding of the silver trumpets by the 
priests. 

The Greeks commenced the war-song when within about 
a half of a mile of the enemy. 2 Chron. xx, 21. They then 
raised a shout, akcLka&iv, which was also done among the 
Hebrews. 1 Sam. xvii, 52 ; Josh, vi, 6 ; Isa. v, 29, 30 ; xvii, 12 ; 
Jer. iv, 19 ; xxv, 30. The war-shout in Judg. vii, 20, 
was, " The sword of the Lord and of Gideon" A common 
stratagem among the Hebrews was that of dividing the 
army and placing one part of it in ambush. Gen. xiv, 14-16 ; 
Josh, viii, 12 ; Judg. xx, 39. There is only one instance of 
deception in war used by the Hebrews, and that was not 
approved of. Gen. xxxiv, 25-31. It was the practice of 
the Roman armies to stand still and receive the shock of 
their opposers. There is an allusion to this in the following 
passages: 1 Cor. xvi, 13; Gal. v, 1; Eph. vi, 14; Phil. 
i, 27 ; 1 Thess. hi, 8 ; 2 Thess. ii, 15. 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 205 

Sieges. 

When a city was threatened with a siege, it was first 
invited to surrender. Deut. xx, 10 ; Isa. xxxvi, 1-20 ; 
xxxvii, 8-20. 

Circumvallation was known in the time of Moses ; also 
the mound. Deut. xx, 19, 20 ; 2 Sam. xx, 15. The besiegers 
dug a ditch between them and the city for their own secu- 
rity, and another parallel to it, outside, so as to enclose their 
camp on both sides, and to prevent their being attacked on 
the rear as well as front. The earth thrown out of the ditch 
formed a wall, on which towers were erected. The inhabi- 
tants of a city shut up in this way perished by famine, pes- 
tilence, and missile weapons. 2 Kings xxv, 1 ; Jer. lii, 4 ; 
Ezek. iv, 10-12 ; xvii, 11 ; 2 Kings vi, 28-31. 

The besiegers cast up a mound near the wall of the city, 
and strengthened it on both sides with beams of timber. 
2 Sam. xx, 15; 2 Kings xix, 32; Jer. vi, 6; xxxii, 24; 
xxxiii, 4 ; Ezek. iv, 2 ; xvii, 17-23 ; xxvi, 8. From this the 
besiegers threw their weapons into the city. 

Conquered Nations. 

The power of the conquerers owned no limitations. The 
flocks, cattle, fruits of the earth, fields, gardens, houses, idol 
gods, and all, fell into their possession. The wives and chil- 
dren of those who had been subdued were sold for slaves, 
and their cities were razed to the ground. 2 Sam. v, 21 ; 
2 Chron. xxv, 14; Hosea x, 5, 6; Jer. xlvi, 25; xlviii, 1. 
Soldiers, artificers, engineers, and principal men, were sent 
into foreign countries. Kings were sometimes allowed to 
remain in authority, by promise of good faith and payment 
of tribute. If they rebelled they were treated with great 
severity. Gen. xiv, 4; 2 Kings xxiii, 34; xxiv, 1, 14; Isa. 
xxiv, 2 ; Jer. xx, 5, 6. Soldiers who were taken were de- 
prived of all their property, and sold naked into servitude. 
When the city was taken by assault, all the men were slain, 



206 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

and the women and children were carried away as prisoners, 
and sold for a very low price. Micah i, 11 ; Isa. xlvii, 3 ; 
xx, 3, 4 ; 2 Chron. xxviii, 9-15 ; Psa. xliv, 12. When a city 
was taken, all who could escape fled and sought for safety 
in the tops of mountains, in caves and rocks ; hence God, 
on account of the protection he affords, is called a rock. 
Judg. xx, 47 ; Jer. iv, 29 ; xvi, 16 ; xxii, 20 ; Ezek. vii, 7, 17 ; 
Isa. xxvi, 4. 

Captive kings and nobles were bound, their eyes were put 
out, their bodies mutilated, and they thrown on the ground 
and trodden under foot until they died. Judg. i, 6, 7 ; 
2 Kings xxv, 7 ; Josh, x, 24. They were sometimes thrown 
down upon thorns, sawn asunder, or beaten to pieces with 
threshing instruments. 2 Sam. xii, 3 1 ; 1 Chron. xx, 3 ; 
Judg. viii, 7. Frequently, old men, women, and children 
were slaughtered and thrown into heaps. 2 Kings viii, 12 ; 
Hosea x, 14 ; Isa. xiii, 17, 18. Even the women with child 
were ripped up. Isa. xiii, 16-18; 2 Kings viii, 12 ; Amos 
i, 13. Everything was devoted to death, and the very land 
desolated. Lev. xxvii, 21, 28, 29; Num. xviii, 14; Deut. 
xiii, 17. In some cases the conquered nations were only 
made tributary. 2 Sam. viii, 6 ; 2 Kings xiv, 4. 

The people all went out, not excepting the women, to meet 
the conquerors, with singing and dancing. Judg. xi, 34-37 ; 
1 Sam. xviii, 6, 7. Triumphant songs were uttered for 
the living, and elegies for the dead. Monuments, in honour 
of victories, were erected, (2 Sam. viii, 13,) and the arms of 
the enemy were hung up in the temples, as trophies of vic- 
tory. 1 Sam. xxxi, ID; 2 Kings xi, 10. 

David instituted separate corps of military men, com- 
posed of those most renowned for warlike deeds. 2 Sam. 
xxiii, 8, 39. 

Character of Ancient Wars. 

Ancient warfare was characterized by great cruelty 
among all nations, and the Hebrews must be judged by the 



BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 207 

times in which they lived. The same clemency could not be 
extended to enemies then as now, without exposure to all 
sorts of injury. Num. xxxi, 14, 15 ; 2 Sam. xii, 31 ; Amos 
i, 13; ii, 1 ; 2 Kings iii, 27. 

In regard to the Canaanites, God selected the Israelites as 
his agents to punish them for their great wickedness, (Gen. 
xv, 16,) and hence their utter extirpation was but the carry- 
ing out of the divine will, as in the case of the inhabitants 
of Sodom and Gomorrah. That they had a right to the 
possession of the land, however, did not arise from the con- 
sideration that they had conquered it in war, though might, 
in such instances, has given the right, but arose from a very 
different and less questionable consideration. Canaan origi- 
nally belonged to Abraham ; and he virtually declared, by 
the wells which he dug and the altars he erected, his right 
to the land, and his determination to hold it. Gen. xii, 
5, 6, 8, 9; xxi, 25-30; xiii, 4, 14, 18; xv, 7, 13, 21; 
xvii, 8. The patriarch left the soil, after his death, to Isaac, 
not to Ishmael, who in turn transmitted it to Jacob, to the 
exclusion of Esau. It had been occupied by the patriarchs 
for a period of two hundred and fifty years ; and when Jacob 
and his descendants emigrated to Egypt, they intended to 
return. Gen. xlviii, 4, 21, 22; xlix, 1, 26; 1 Chron. 
vii, 21, 24. During the abode of the Israelites in Egypt, the 
Canaanites, who had increased in numbers, occupied the 
whole territory, and the Hebrews, thus excluded from their 
own soil, had the right to repossess it; and if the Canaan- 
ites would not acknowledge that right, a resort to arms was 
perfectly justifiable on their part. Josh, xi, 19 ; ix, 3, 36. 

Spoils. 

The spoils of the enemy's army were divided among the 
victorious soldiers, as the reward of the toils they endured. 
Gen. xlix, 27 ; Exod. xv, 9 ; Judg. v, 30 ; Isa. ix, 2, 3 ; Ezek. 
xxix, 18-20 ; Psa. cxix, 162. There was a propriety in this, 
inasmuch as common soldiers paid their own expenses, or 



208 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

were supported by their parents. Judg. xx, 10 ; 2 Sam. xvii, 
17-20. Hebrew kings, however, in a subsequent age, made 
provision for soldiers, in what was called store, cities. 2 Chron. 
xvii, 1 2 ; xxxii, 28. Soldiers were sometimes hired; and 
hence we find, in the New Testament, mention of the wages 
of a soldier. Luke iii, 14 ; Kom. vi, 23 ; 1 Cor. ix, 7 ; 2 Cor. 
xi, 8 ; 2 Tim. ii, 4. Men, women, and children were re- 
garded as spoils. Things of great value were the property 
of the leader or commander. 2 Sam. viii, 11, 12; xii, 30; 
2 Chron. xxviii, 14-19.- Cities devoted to the curse were 
destroyed with all their spoils. Deut. ii, 34 ; iii, 7 ; Num. 
xxxi, 9 ; Lev. xxvii, 28 ; Josh, vi, 24-26 ; viii, 26, 28, 30. 

After the commencement of war, the people could make 
plunder of the property which had been deposited with them, 
or what they had borrowed. Exod. iii, 22 ; xi, 2. The word 
literally to plunder, or rob, which in Exod. iii, 22 is used in 
reference to this subject, appears to be employed tropically, 
and out of its usual signification. 

Four months of the year were regarded as sacred, and 
during this time the Hebrews abstained from the use of 
arms. The same custom prevailed among the surrounding 
nations, and this accounts for the fact that the Hebrew terri- 
tories were not invaded at such times. God had promised 
them security from invasion during their solemn festivals, 
and no instance occurs of their country being invaded at 
such times. 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 209 

CHAPTER III. 
SACKED ARCHAEOLOGY. 

Historical View of Religion. 

It is not unreasonable to suppose that when Adam was cre- 
ated he was made a perfect man, not only in his form, but 
also in the accomplishments of his mind ; for to imagine that 
he came from the divine hand in a state of stupidity and 
ignorance, would not only be doubting the wisdom and 
goodness of God, but the truth of the Bible. Created in 
the very image of God, he was endowed with full capacity 
of knowing him, and he was also perfectly adapted to ap- 
preciate and enjoy the Eden of happiness over which he pre- 
sided as lord of the lower world. When, in the full and 
unrestrained exercise of his emotions and volitions, he viola- 
ted the divine prohibition, he fell from his perfect and happy 
estate into one of sin and misery, and involved his whole 
posterity in the lamentable consequences of his defection. 
His knowledge of evil was purchased at the terrible price of 
his happiness for time and eternity, "and that of his race. By 
his act the bitter fountain of death and sorrow was unsealed 
in the very bowers of life, and the dark, deadly streams were 
made to flow, blasting the joys of Eden, and spreading 
lamentation, mourning, and woe over all the earth. 

The curse which was pronounced upon Adam for his trans- 
gression, and the punishment inflicted upon Cain for murder, 
were clear indications of the odiousness of sin in the mind 
of the Creator, and were designed to remain as perpetual 
monitions that misery and wretchedness are inseparable con- 
comitants of transgression. These visible punishments, how- 
ever, did not deter the race from sin. As the human family 
increased in numbers it increased in crimes, until the whole 
earth was filled with violence and slaughter. About the 
year of the world 235, wickedness was carried to such an 



210 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

extent that the religious portion of it thought it necessary to 
take to themselves the name of the sons, or worshippers of 
God, in contradistinction from the sons of men, or those who 
had forgotten God, and were hurried, by the impulse of cor- 
rupt passions, to every species of wickedness. These evils 
were increased from the circumstance that the sons or wor- 
shippers of God married the daughters of men, or the irreli- 
gious. Wives of this description neglected the right instruc- 
tion of their children ; and as this devolved on them rather 
than on their fathers, the children followed the former rather 
than the latter. Gen. iv, 26 ; vi, 1. In this way corruption 
increased and prevailed to such a degree that the warnings 
of God were of no avail. Gen. vi, 3. The destruction of the 
entire race, with the exception of the righteous, which con- 
sisted of but one family, was determined by the Almighty, 
and a deluge swept the guilty world of mankind from exist- 
ence. 

This terrible destruction of every living thing was predicted 
one hundred and twenty years before its consummation, 
(Gen. vi, 3,) so that the family of Noah might know that it 
was sent from God, and that the object of it was to leave, by 
such a signal event, a long- to-be-remembered impression 
that God is the governor of all things, to whom the vices of 
men are abhorrent ; and that, however long-suffering, he 
will at last punish the guilty. A command was given by 
the Almighty, after the Deluge, that every homicide should 
be punished with death, and a promise, also, that the Deluge 
should no more return. The rainbow was made a visible 
sign of this promise, as well as a confirmation of it. The 
posterity of Noah laid up in their minds the principles and 
instructions which had been communicated ; and when, after- 
wards, they attempted to build a tower, and were confounded 
and scattered from each other, they easily learned from that 
event that their conduct was displeasing to God. They 
reproved Nimrod for a similar attempt, and, in allusion to his 
conduct, called hirn the rebel, and made his memory a pro- 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 211 

verb, saying, " Even as Nimrod the mighty hunter ? At a 
later period, as men degenerated, and were unable to direct 
themselves, and forgetting God, or not liking to retain a 
knowledge of him, they turned aside and looked for help 
from surrounding inanimate objects, and rocks, trees, rivers, 
winds, the sun, moon, stars, and dead men, and finally, also, 
living animals, became deities. Then followed sculptured 
images and temples. At first, as we have seen, they worship- 
ped God as the ruler and governor of all things ; but, finally, 
the creature usurped the place of the Creator, and as their 
dumb idols uttered no commands, they gave loose rein to 
their evil imaginations, and the greatest crimes were com- 
mitted, and made a part of the religious worship offered to 
their idols. 

This corruption continued to spread itself wider and wider, 
until God gave a peculiar call to Abraham, whose ancestors 
had, from the beginning, sustained a religious character, 
(Gen. v, 1-31 ; xi, 10-32,) but who at length became 
involved in the general idolatry. Josh, xxiv, 3. It was 
designed, in the providence of God, that Abraham the Chal- 
dean, and his posterity, should preserve and transmit his 
religion to other nations. As the descendant of Shem, God 
promised to Abraham a large posterity, possession of the land 
of Canaan, and also that, through his seed, all nations should 
be blessed and receive the true religion. Gen. xii, 1 3 ; xviii, 1 8 ; 
xxii, 18. With these promises were connected the rite of 
circumcision. Gen. xviii, 19. God afterwards repeated the 
same promises to Isaac and Jacob, (Gen. xxvi, 4 ; xxviii, 1 4,) 
who faithfully performed their various duties, taught the true 
worship of God to their domestics, and left it to their 
posterity. Gen. xxviii, 20-22 ; xxxv, 2, 7, 9, 13 ; xxxix, 9 ; 
1, 17-20. These promises, and the fulfilment of their corre- 
sponding duties, form the fundamental principle of the ancient 
covenant, and with them the new covenant is very intimately 
connected. 

The knowledge of the true God, which was coeval with 



212 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

the existence of the human race, was originally communicated 
by revelation. The worship of God was simple and uncon- 
strained, such as was prompted by conscience and approved 
by reason, and consisted chiefly in tithes, vows, and prayers, 
and in the erection of altars and the offering of sacrifices. 
Gen. iv, 3, 4; viii, 20; xii, 7, 8; xiii, 4-18; xiv, 20; 
xv, 18-20; Ac. 

The Sabbath was consecrated from the beginning, as may 
be inferred from Gen. ii, 2 ; vii, 4-10 ; viii, 10-12 ; xxix, 27. 
Many traces of moral discipline occur. Gen. iv, 6-1 6 ; 
vi, 3-8; xi, 4-6; xiii, 8; xiv, 14-24; xviii, 19. 

When Moses was sent as a divine messenger to break the 
chains of Hebrew servitude, many of them were addicted to 
the worship of Egyptian gods. Exod. hi, 13. To rescue the 
Hebrews from bondage, who were destined to be the defend- 
ers of the true religion, and to bring them back to that 
worship which they had lost while in Egypt, gave occasion 
for the most surprising miracles — miracles which not only 
compelled Pharaoh to dismiss the Hebrews, and brought 
destruction upon his army when he pursued them, but were 
also a new and overwhelming proof to the Hebrews them- 
selves that there is indeed a God all-powerful and omnis- 
cient, and that Moses, by whom these wonderful works had 
been predicted and performed, was his messenger. Exod. 
vi, 7 ; vii, 5 ; ix, 14, 16, 29 ; x, 2 ; xiv, 4, 17, 18, 31 ; xvi, 12 ; 
xix, 4-9; Deut. iv, 35-39. It was also shown, at the same 
time, that the Egyptian gods were destitute of power, and 
altogether unable to protect their votaries. Exod. xii, 12. 
Nothing but this wonderful manifestation, from time to time, 
of their miracle-working God, could have preserved the whole 
nation from being seduced into idolatry. 

To preserve the true religion, and keep constantly before 
the mind of the nation the true nature and character of God, 
the Sabbath was rigidly observed, and the Pentecost, the 
Jubilee, the Passover, and the Feast of Tabernacles, were 
sacredly observed. The book of the law was publicly read, 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 213 

every seven years, in the tabernacle, and every Hebrew was 
commanded to commit to memory the thirty-second chapter 
of Deuteronomy, as a perpetual monitor of their duty. 

The laws of Moses enjoined a supreme love to God, as the 
creator and governor of the universe ; a love to the neigh- 
bour ; prohibited hatred and revenge, cruelty and inhumanity 
to servants; and enjoined benevolence and beneficence to the 
poor, especially widows and orphans ; and the whole institu- 
tion was a system of moral discipline, designed to secure 
uprightness and integrity of heart. 

The laws of Moses contained historical and moral types. 
This is evident from the passover and feast of tabernacles ; 
(Exod. xii, 1, 13, 16 ; Lev. xxiii, 4-8 ; Deut. xvi, 1-8 ;) also 
from the rite of circumcision, and the gold mitre of the high 
priest ; for a typical import is expressly assigned to the last of 
these by Moses himself. Exod. xxviii, 38 ; Deut. x, 16 ; xxx, 6. 

The influence of the institutions of Moses was retained 
through many ages of trial. Whenever religion was endanger- 
ed by neglect or by idolatry, the invariable consequence 
was that there were calamities and evils which admonished 
the people of the necessity of choosing rulers who would 
restore their religion. Sometimes God sent public calamities, 
and he also sent his prophets, who reproved kings and 
princes, and threw great obstacles in the way of their wicked 
attempts to introduce idolatry. When at length admonitions 
ceased to be of any avail, and everything was growing worse 
and worse, the Israelitish commonwealth was overthrown, 
two hundred and fifty-three years after their separation from 
Judah, and seven hundred and twenty-two before Christ. 
The people were carried away into Assyria, and Gozan, and 
Chalacene, cities of Media. The kingdom of Judah was 
overthrown three hundred and eighty-seven years after the 
separation, and five hundred and eighty-eight before Christ, 
by the Chaldeans, and the people were carried captive to the 
banks of the river Chebar, in Babylonia. 

The return of the Jews from captivity witnessed a return 



214 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

to true religion, and in this revival an utter extinction was 
given to idolatry among them as a nation. Synagogues 
were built, sacrifices offered, and the law of Moses read in 
those synagogues every Sabbath day ; while schools were 
established for the education of the rising generation. 

True religion was not restored, as some suppose, by the 
example of the Magian worship, or by philosophic develop- 
ment, but by a recurrence to their ancient history, their 
ancient miracles, and the fulfilment of prophecy. 

A Future State. 

The ancient Hebrews had some idea of a future life, and 
this we learn from the sacred record. Their views, however, 
were limited and obscure, as will be seen by a reference to 
the distinction which they made between the subterranean 
residence denominated sheol, and the grave, or place of 
interment for the body. Gen. xxv, 8; xxxvii, 35; xlix, 33; 
1, 2-10; Num. xx, 24-26; Deut. xxxiv, 7; xxxi, 16; 
1 Kings xi, 43. 

That they believed in the existence of the soul after the 
death of the body is evident from the credit they gave to 
necromancy, by means of which the Jews believed that the 
spirits of the dead were summoned back to the present scene 
of existence. Lev. xix, 31 ; xx, 6, 7, 26, 27 ; Deut. xviii, 11; 
1 Sam. xxviii, 3-10; 2 Kings xxiii, 24; 1 Chron. x, 13; 
Isa. xix, 3 ; xxix, 4 ; lvii, 9 ; Zech. xiii, 2-6. 

The ancient Hebrews believed that the spirits of the dead 
were received into sheol, a large subterranean abode. Gen. 
xxxvii, 35 ; Num. xvi, 30-33 ; Deut. xxxii, 22. Into this 
abode the wicked were driven suddenly, but the good 
descended into it tranquilly. This spacious dwelling-place is 
described as dark, sorrowful, and inactive. Job x, 21 ; Psa. 
vi, 5 ; lxxxviii, 11, 12 ; cxv, 17 ; Isa. xxxviii, 18. In other 
places — such as Isa. xiv, 9, Job xxvi, 5, 6, and 1 Sam. 
xxviii, 7 — it is represented as full of activity. A superhuman 
knowledge is ascribed to its inhabitants. In this abode 






BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 215 

departed spirits rest, Job iii, 13 ; and there the living hope 
again to behold their ancestors and children, Gen.xxxvii, 35 ; 
xxv, 10; xxxv, 28; xlix, 29; Num. xx, 24-26; 1 Kings 
ii, 10, 11. 

It is supposed by some that the passages in Dan. xii, 2, 3, 13 
were a confirmation of the resurrection of the dead, and also 
Haggai ii, 23 ; Zech. iii, 7. This doctrine was at length 
adopted by the Jews, with the exception of the Sadducees. 
It remained for the gospel to bring life and immortality 
to light 

Propagation of Judaism. 

During the four centuries preceding the destruction of 
Jerusalem, the Jews were scattered abroad extensively among 
the nations. This dispersion enabled the Jews to propagate 
their religion, and such was their zeal and success that they 
won whole nations. The Idumeans, Itureans, and Moabites 
made profession of the Jewish faith, and underwent the rite 
of circumcision. The King of Yemen, in Arabia Felix, be- 
came a Jew more than one hundred years before Christ, and 
his successors defended and propagated the Jewish religion. 
The Jews in Asia Minor, in Greece, and, in the progress of 
time, at Rome also, were the means of drawing numbers 
within the pale of their country's religion. In Rome they 
became so numerous as to have a majority at the elections. 
Proselytes, especially from the female sex, who were not 
subjected to the inconvenience of circumcision, were perpet- 
ually multiplied. See Acts ii, 11; vi, 1; xiii, 43-50; 
xvi, 14 ; xvii, 4 ; xviii, 7-13 ; xix, 29. Providence thus pre- 
pared the way for the introduction of the Christian religion 
into all parts of the world, and the apostles found everywhere 
in their travels those who had embraced the Jewish religion ; 
and they not only had liberty to preach in their synagogues, 
but they were essentially aided by Jewish proselytes in an- 
nouncing Jesus Christ to the heathen. Acts ii, 5-11 ; xi, 19 ; 
xiii, 4, 6, 13, 52 ; xiv, 1-28 ; xvi, 1-40 ; xii, 1-17. 



216 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

The Jews preserved great harmony among themselves, 
and those who lived in foreign countries maintained a con- 
nexion with each other by means of the temple at Jerusalem. 
The Jews of Egypt, who inhabited Leontopolis, in the district 
of Heliopolis, from the year 149 before Christ to Anno 
Domini 73, had a temple of their own, though they still kept 
up a connexion with the Jews at Jerusalem. 

Though the Jews were divided into three prominent sects, 
the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes, yet their harmony or 
unity was not affected thereby. 

Doctrines of the Pharisees. 

The Pharisees boasted that they were peculiarly accept- 
able to God, on account of their accurate knowledge of the 
Jewish law and religion. The following were the opinions 
entertained by them : — 

1 . They agreed with the Stoics in teaching the doctrine of fate, 
or an immutable order of things fixed by the decree of God. 

2. They taught that the souls of men were immortal, and 
dwelt after the present life in sheol. They further taught that 
the spirits of the wicked were tormented with everlasting 
punishments, and that they at times made their reappearance 
upon the earth to vex men with epilepsy, mental derange- 
ment, madness, and melancholy ; and that the good, on the 
other hand, received rewards, and at length passed into other 
human bodies. Matt, xiv, 2 ; xvi, 14 ; John ix, 2-34. 

It is nowhere remarked by Josephus that they believed in 
the resurrection of the dead, though it is evident, from several 
passages, they held such belief. Matt, xxii, 24-34 ; Mark 
xii, 18-23 ; Luke xx, 27-36 ; John xi, 24. 

3. They believed in, and taught the existence of angels, 
both good and bad. They believed that angels were the 
ministers of God on earth, and that some one of them was 
assigned to every kingdom, and also to every individual, and 
at times made his appearance. Matt, xviii, 10 ; Luke iv, 10 ; 
Heb. ii, 5 ; Acts xii, 15 ; xxiii, 8, 9. 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 21 7 

4. They believed, furthermore, that God was under obliga- 
tion, and bound in justice, to bestow favours upon the Jews, 
to render them partakers of the kingdom of the Messiah, 
to justify and to render them eternally happy, and that he 
could not condemn any of them. With them the ground of 
justification was Abraham's faith and works, the know- 
ledge of God which existed among them, together with 
circumcision and the offering of sacrifices. Rom. ii-xii, 
Heb. x, 1-18. 

They put a very lax construction upon the laws of Moses 
in regard to the law of retaliation, the divorce of a wife, and 
the loving one's neighbour. They maintained that the oath in 
which God was not expressly named was not binding. They 
forbade the gathering a few ears of corn, and healing the 
sick on the Sabbath. They gave the preference to ceremonial 
laws ; and they esteemed anger, and the exercise of impure 
affections, of little consequence. They manifested great 
anxiety in making proselytes, and were avaricious, fond of 
pleasure, vain glory, uttered their prayers publicly, and took 
pride in ornamenting their tombs. 

They observed a multitude of traditions, and placed these 
unwritten ordinances of the ancients on an equality with the 
divine laws themselves. These they collected, and formed 
out of them the Talmud. Various other observances, not 
above enumerated, were regarded by them, such as the 
washing of hands before meals, not eating with Gentiles or tax- 
gatherers, fasting twice a week, enlarging their phylacteries 
and the borders of their garments, &c, &c. Phylacteries 
were pieces of parchment, on which were written four pas- 
sages of Scripture. Exod. xiii a 1, 10, 11, 16 ; Deut. v, 4-9 ; 
xi, 13-21. 

Doctrines of the Sadducees. 

Their opinions were peculiar. They believed — 
1. That besides God there was no other spiritual being, 
whether good or bad. They believed that the soul. and 

10 



218 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

body died together ; and that there neither was, nor ever 
could be, a resurrection. Matt, xxii, 23 ; Acts xxiii, 8. 

2. They rejected the doctrine of fate, and maintained, on 
the contrary, that the events which happened depended upon 
the free, unconstrained actions of men. They held that the 
traditions received by the Pharisees were not binding. It is 
supposed by some that in progress of time they admitted the 
existence of angels and the immortality of the soul. 



; 

and 



Doctrines of the Essenes* 

The principal ground of difference between the Essenes 
the Therapeutce consisted in this; — The former were Jews\ 
who spoke the Aramean ; the latter were Greek Jews. The 
Essenes lived chiefly in Palestine; the Therapeutse lived in 
Egypt. The Therape.utse were more rigid than the Essenes 
since the latter, although they made it a practice to keep at 
a distance from large cities, lived, nevertheless, in towns am 
villages, and practised agriculture and the arts, with th( 
exception of those which were subservient to war. The 
Therapeutas, on the contrary, fled from all inhabited places, 
dwelt in fields, and deserts, and gardens, and gave themselves 
up to contemplation. They both held their property in 
common. Candidates for admission among the Essenes 
gave their property to the society, but those among the 
Therapeutse left theirs to their friends. After a number of 
years of probation they made a profession, which bound both 
of them to the exercise of the strictest uprightness. 

The Essenes offered prayers before sunrise, after which 
each one was sent, by the person who was placed over them, 
to his respective employment. About eleven o'clock they 
left their work, and assembled to partake of their bread and 
pottage. In the evening, also, their supper was in common. 
Before and after meals the priest offered up prayers. On the 
Sabbath the Essenes listened to the reading of the law in 
their synagogues, which was attended with an allegorical 
explanation ; they also read books by themselves in private 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 219 

on that day. They pretended to possess the secret names of 
angels, which it would have been an act of impiety to have 
communicated to profane persons. They never took an oath, 
except when joining the order. They asserted slavery was 
repugnant to nature. Some of them made pretensions to the 
gift of prophecy. They avoided matrimony, except among 
a particular class of them. The rest lived in celibacy, because 
they had no confidence in the virtue of women. In point of 
doctrine they very nearly resembled the Pharisees. 

The Therapeutse agreed in most things with the Essenes, 
but they all lived unmarried. They received females into their 
sect ; but they remained virgins, and followed the same mode 
of life with the men. They kept vigils on the night of the 
Sabbath, sung hymns, and led sacred dances. 

Hellenists. 

This name was given to the Jews who are mentioned in 
Acts vi, 1 ; ix, 29 ; xi, 20 ; and who, not only in Egypt, Asia 
Minor, and Greece, but in all places, spoke the Greek lan- 
guage as their vernacular tongue. They do not appear to be 
the same as those mentioned in John vii, 35, James i, 1, 
and 1 Peter i, 1, and are called the dispersed among the 
Gentiles; for it appears that the Hellenists were found at 
Jerusalem, (Acts vi, 1,) and they were likewise found among 
the dispersed Jews who spoke the Aramean ; as, for instance, 
Paul, who was born at Tarsus. 2 Cor. xi, 22 ; Phil, iii, 5. 

Proselytes. 

Proselytes, irooar\kvTOi, i. e., those who have come in, are 
mentioned at a very ancient period in connexion with the 
journey through Arabia, and in the history of David and 
Solomon. 

In the time of Christ and the Apostles they were found 
everywhere in great numbers, some circumcised and some 
uncircumcised. The former were called just or righteous 
proselytes, and the latter the proselytes of the gate. These 



220 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

worshipped the one true God, but refused to obey the laws 
of Moses : such were the Kenites and the Rechabites. They 
observed the precepts of Noah, viz.: — 1. That men should 
abstain from idolatry. 2. That they should worship the 
true God. 3. That they should hold incest in abhorrence. 
4. That they should not commit homicide. 5. That they 
should not steal or rob. 6. That they should punish a 
murderer with death. *7. That they should not eat blood, 
nor anything strangled. 

They frequented the synagogues in company with the 
Jews ; and although they were at liberty to offer sacrifices 
to God in any place where they chose, they preferred visiting 
the temple of Jerusalem, and offered sacrifices through the 
priests. 

The other class of proselytes, denominated the just, were 
united with the great body of the Jewish people not only by 
circumcision, but by baptism also, which was a symbol of 
regeneration. Exod. xix, 10-14; xxiv, 8; Gen. xxxv, 2. 
Christ speaks of this baptism in such a way as to imply that 
it was well known. John iii, 10. 

Samaritans. 

The people who were sent by Shalmaneser and Esarhaddon 
from Cuthah, Ara, Hamath, and Sepharvaim into that 
portion of country which formerly belonged to the tribes of 
Ephraim and Manasseh, united with one another, and with the 
Israelites who were left there, and formed one people. They 
were called Samaritans, from their principal city, Samaria. 

At first these people worshipped the respective gods of 
their own nation, but, being harassed by lions, they attributed 
their sufferings from this source to the circumstance of their 
not worshipping the God of the country where they now lived. 
They therefore received back from the King of Assyria an 
exiled Hebrew priest, who took up his residence in Bethel, 
where the golden calf had formerly been. This priest taught 
them the worship of Jehovah, from the books of Moses, but 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 221 

mingled with it the idolatry of the calf, and represented that 
animal as the embodied form of the Deity, and thus the 
people were led into the worship of idols and Jehovah at 
the same time. 2 Kings xvii, 26-34 ; 2 Chron. xxx, 1-10. 

They proposed to assist the Hebrews in rebuilding the 
temple after their return from exile, but their proposals were 
finally rejected, which occasioned an implacable hatred on 
their part, and they impeded the work as much as possible. 
Manasses, the son of the high priest, who had married the 
daughter of Sanballat, the ruler of the Samaritans, refusing 
to comply with the order of Nehemiah, in regard to putting 
away his wife, on account of her foreign extraction, went over 
to the Samaritans, and his father-in-law built a temple on 
Mount Gerizim, and placed him over its sacred observances. 
While Manasses fulfilled the office of high priest among them, 
they appeared to have dismissed their idols. Jews, who 
had transgressed the laws to evade punishment, fled to 
Samaria, and thus the hatred increased on both sides. One 
hundred and sixty-seven years before Christ, Antiochus 
Epiphanes, king of the Syrians, consecrated their temple 
to Jupiter, but they returned afterwards to the religion of 
Moses. About thirty-eight years after this, John Hyrcanus 
destroyed their temple. At the time of Christ there was no 
intercourse whatever between the Jews and Samaritans. 
Luke xvii, 16 ; John iv, 9. The Jews, out of hatred, changed 
the name of the city of Sichem to Sychar, which means 
drunken. John iv, 5. The Samaritans only received the 
Pentateuch as of divine authority ; they nevertheless expected 
the adyent of the Messiah, (John iv, 25,) and grounded their 
expectations on Gen. xii, 3; xviii, 18; xxii, 18; xxvi, 4; 
xxviii, 14. They contended that the proper place of worship 
was Mount Gerizim, and not Jerusalem. John iv, 20. 

SACKED PLACES. 

In the earliest ages of the world there was no distinction in 
regard to the time or place where God was worshipped. 



222 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

The earliest altar of which we have any account, was that 
erected by Noah on Mount Ararat. Gen. viii, 20. Abraham, 
Isaac, and Jacob erected a number of altars in the land of 
Canaan, particularly in places where they had been favoured 
with the divine communications. Gen. xii, 7; xiii, 4-18; 
xxvi, 25 ; xxxiii, 20 ; xxxv, 1, 3, 7. Moses, and the author 
of the Book of Joshua, both speak of idols, altars, and groves, 
but are silent respecting temples. The first temple of which 
we have any account was the one at Shechem, which was 
dedicated to the god Baal-berith ; but, as it was furnished 
with a tower, there had probably been others before it. 
Judg. ix, 4. Moses constructed a tabernacle, while marching 
through Arabia, which could easily be transferred from place 
to place. This was not the first of its kind. Amos v, 26. 
With respect to the temple, which was subsequently erected 
in Palestine, Moses gave no command on the subject. 

The Tabernacle. 

The place where public worship was held, from the time 
of Moses till Solomon, was the tabernacle, variously denomi- 
nated a tent, a habitation, a sanctuary, a house, the dwelling- 
place of Jehovah 1 s glory, Jehovah's tent, and palace, and the 
tent of the congregation. It was divided into three parts. 
The first part was the area or court of the tabernacle, a 
hundred and fifty feet long and seventy-five feet broad. It 
was surrounded on all sides with curtains, to the height of 
seven or eight feet. They were suspended from rods of 
silver, which reached from one column to another, and rested 
on them. The columns on the east and west were ten, and 
on the north and south twenty, in number, and were made 
of acacia, (shittim-wood.) The columns, in order to prevent 
their being injured by the moisture of the earth, were sup- 
ported on bases of brass. Near the top of the columns were 
silver hooks, in which the rods that sustained the curtains 
were inserted. That part of the court of the tabernacle 
which formed the entrance was on the east side, and thirty 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 223 

feet in extent. The entrance was closed by letting fall a sort 
of tapestry, which hung from rods or poles, resting on four 
columns, and which was adorned with figures in blue, purple, 
and scarlet. When the entrance was opened the tapestry 
was drawn up. The curtains in the entrance were different 
from those that were suspended around other parts of the 
court of the tabernacle. Exod. xxvii, 9-19; xxxix, 9-20. 

The tabernacle, strictly so called, was situated in the middle 
of the* western side of the court. It was covered on every 
part, and, in point of form, was an oblong square, being 
thirty cubits, or forty-five feet long, from east to west, and 
ten cubits, or fifteen feet broad, from north to south. The 
walls were composed of forty-eight boards, or planks, viz., 
twenty on the north side, and twenty on the south side, and 
six on the west. The two at the angles were doubled, 
making forty-eight. Exod. xxvi, 15-30. The eastern side 
was not boarded. The boards were of acacia, fifteen feet 
long and twenty-seven inches broad, and overlaid with plates 
of gold. They rested on bases of silver, and were united 
together by bars or poles, also of gold. The tabernacle 
thus constructed was shielded by four coverings. The first, 
or interior or lower covering, was made of fine twined linen, 
extending down within eighteen inches of the earth, and 
displaying pictures of cherubim, wrought into it with the 
various colours of blue, purple, and scarlet. The second was 
a fabric woven of goats' hair, and extended very nearly to 
the ground. Exod. xxvi, 7-13. The third was of rams' 
skins, dyed red ; the fourth of the skins of some sea animal 
of a sky-blue colour. The eastern side, or entrance, was 
closed by means of a curtain made of cotton, which was 
suspended from silver rods that were sustained by five 
columns, covered with gold. 

The interior of the tabernacle was divided into two parts, 
the first thirty feet long and fifteen broad and high, and was 
separated from the second, or inner apartment, by a curtain 
or veil, which hung down from four columns overlaid with 



224 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

gold, and was denominated the inner veil. Exod. xxvi, 36, 37. 
The first apartment was called the holy, and the inner 
apartment the most holy, and, sometimes, the inner taber- 
nacle. 

Altar and Brazen Laver. 

Nearly in the centre of the outer court was the altar. Exod. 
xl, 29. It was a kind of coffer, four and a half feet high, and 
seven and a half feet long and broad, made of acacia.- The 
lower part rested on four short columns, or feet, the sides of 
which were gates of brass, through which the blood of the 
victim flowed out. The sides of the upper part of the altar 
were covered with brass, and the interior space was filled 
with earth, upon which the fire was kindled. The four cor- 
ners of the altar projected upwards, so as to resemble horns. 
At the four corners were rings, through which poles were 
placed, for the purpose of carrying it from place to place. 
On the south side there was an ascent to it, made of earth 
heaped up. Exod. xx, 24; xxiv, 4 ; xxvii, 1-8 ; xxxviii, 1-7 ; 
Lev. ix, 22. 

The appurtenances, or furniture of the altar, were the 
urns for carrying away the ashes, the shovels for collecting 
them together, the skins for receiving and sprinkling the 
blood of the victims, a sort of tongs for turning the parts of 
the victim in the fire, the censers for burning incense, and 
other instruments of brass. Exod. xxvii, 3 ; xxxviii, 3. 

Between the altar and the tabernacle, a little to the south, 
stood a circular laver, which, together with its base, was made 
of brazen ornaments which the women had presented for the 
use of the tabernacle. Exod. xxx, 18; xl, 7. The priests, 
when about to perform their duty, washed their hands in this 
laver. 

Golden Candlestick. 

The golden candlestick was placed in the first apartment 
of the tabernacle, on the south side. It stood on a base, 
from which the principal stem arose perpendicularly. From 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 225 

this stem three branches on each side projected upwards, 
describing parallel curves. They arose from the main stem 
at equal distances, and to the same height with it. The 
height of the whole was five feet, and the distance between 
the exterior branches three and a half feet. The stem and 
branches were adorned with knops, flowers, and other orna- 
ments of gold. The seven extremities of the main stem and 
branches were employed as so many separate lamps, all of 
which were kept burning in the night, but three only in the 
day. Exod. xxx, 8 ; Lev. xxiv, 4. In the morning the priest 
put the lamps in order with his golden snuffers, and carried 
away the filth that might have gathered upon them, in golden 
vessels made for that purpose. The weight of the whole 
candlestick was one hundred and twenty-five pounds. Exod. 
xxv, 31-40; xxvii, 20; xxxvii, 17-24; Lev. xxiv, 1-4; 
Num. iv, 9. 

Table of Skew-Bread. 

In the first apartment of the tabernacle, on the north side, 
was a table, made of acacia wood, three feet long, one and 
a half broad, and two and a quarter high, covered over with 
leaves of gold. The top of the leaf of this table was encir- 
cled with a rim or border of gold. The frame of the table, 
immediately below the leaf, was encircled with a piece of 
wood about four inches broad, around the edge of which 
there was a rim, the same as around the leaf. A little lower 
down, but at equal distances from the top of the table, there 
were four rings of gold fastened to the legs of it, through 
which staves or poles, covered with gold, were placed, for 
the purpose of carrying it. Exod. xxv, 23-28 ; xxxvii, 10-16. 

The rings were not found in the table of shew-bread which 
was afterwards made for the temple, nor, indeed, in any of 
the sacred furniture where they had previously been, except 
in the ark of the covenant Twelve unleavened loaves were 
placed upon this table, which were sprinkled over with frank- 
incense, and, it is stated in the Alexandrine version, with salt 

10* 



226 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

likewise. They were placed in two piles, one above another, 
were changed every Sabbath day by the priests, and were 
called the bread of the face, because it was exhibited before 
the face or throne of Jehovah. Lev. xxiv, 6, 7 ; 1 Chron. 
xxiii, 29. 

Wine was placed upon the tables in bowls, some larger and 
some smaller ; also in a sort of vessels that were covered, 
and in cups which were employed in pouring in and taking 
out the wine from the other vessels. Exod. xxv, 29, 30 ; 
xxxvii, 10-16 ; xl, 4, 24 ; Lev. xxiv, 5-9 ; Num. iv, 7. 

Altar of Incense, 

The altar of incense was placed between the table of shew- 
bread and the golden candlestick, towards the veil which en- 
closed the interior apartment of the tabernacle, or holy of 
holies. It was constructed of acacia wood, eighteen inches 
square and three feet high. It was ornamented at the four 
corners, and overlaid with leaves of gold ; hence it was called 
the golden altar, also the interior altar, in contradistinction 
from the altar for the victims, which was in the large court. 

The upper surface of this altar was encircled by a border, 
and on each of the two sides, at equal distances, were fastened 
two rings, for the admission of the rods of gold, by which it 
was carried. Incense was offered on this altar daily, morn- 
ing and evening, a description of which is given in Exodus 
xxx, 1-10, 34-37; xxxvii, 25-29; xl, 5-26. 

Ark of the Covenant in the Holy of Holies. 

The ark of the covenant was deposited in that part of 
the tabernacle called the holy of holies, a place so secluded 
that the light of day never found an entrance within it. It 
was a chest of an oblong shape, made of acacia wood, 
twenty-seven inches broad and high and three feet long, and 
covered on all sides with the purest gold. It was orna- 
mented on its upper surface with a border or rim of gold, 
and at equal distances, on each of the two sides, from the 



BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 22*7 

top, were two gold rings, in which were placed, to remain 
there perpetually, the rods of gold by which the ark was car- 
ried, and which continued with it after it was deposited in 
the temple. It was so situated in the holy of holies that the 
ends of the rods touched the veil which separated the two 
apartments of the tabernacle. Exod. xxv, 10-15 ; xxxvii, 1-9 ; 
1 Kings viii, 8. 

The lid or cover of the ark, iXaorr\oiov k,Tcfflr\\La, was of 
the same length and breadth, and made of the purest gold. 
Over it, at the two extremities, were two cherubim, with their 
faces turned toward each other, and inclined a little to the 
lid, otherwise called the mercy -seat Their wings, which 
were spread over the top of the ark, formed the throne of 
God the king, while the ark itself was his footstool. There 
was nothing within the ark excepting the two tables of 
stone, on which were inscribed the ten fundamental laws of 
the Jewish religion and commonwealth. A quantity of 
manna was laid up beside the ark in a vase of gold. Exod. 
xvii, 32-36 ; also the rod of Aaron, Num. xvii, 10 ; and a 
copy of the Books of Moses. Deut. xxxi, 26. 

Temple of Solomon. 

The temple was erected on the summit of Mount Moriah, 
encircled by a wall of hewn stone, rising up from the valleys 
around it, from four to six hundred feet in height. The area 
of the temple was about the eighth of a mile square. This 
area was divided into the exterior and interior courts, the 
latter of which was called the court before the temple, or the 
court of the priests. 1 Kings vi, 36 ; vii, 12 ; 2 Kings xxiii, 12 ; 
2 Chron. iv, 9 ; xx, 5 ; Ezek. xl, 28. 

Whether these two courts were separated from each other 
by a wall, or merely a lattice or trellis^ does not clearly ap- 
pear. 1 Kings vi, 1-38; vii, 13-51 ; 2 Chron. iii, 1, 4, 22. 

There were various buildings and apartments in. which 
provisions were kept, also the vases and other utensils which 
belonged to the temple, and some of which were occupied 



228 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL' LITERATURE. 

by the priests and Levites, while they were employed there 
in the fulfilment of their sacred duties. 1 Chron. ix, 26-33 ; 
xxiii, 28; xxviii, 12; 2 Chron. xxxi, 12; Jer. xxxv, 2-4; 
xxxvi, 10. 

The altar in the interior court was built of unhewn stones. 
It was thirty feet long and fifteen high and broad, and cov- 
ered with brass. 2 Chron. iv, 1-10. 

The vases, and other utensils belonging to the altar, were 
much more numerous than in the tabernacle. 1 Kings vii, 
40-47. The very large brazen laver called the molten sea 
was in the form of a half globe, forty-five feet in circumfer- 
ence, fifteen in diameter, and seven and a half in depth. It 
could contain three thousand baths, and was adorned, in its 
upper edge, with figures that resembled lilies in bloom. It 
was also enriched with various ornamental figures, and rested 
on the backs of twelve oxen, three facing each of the cardi- 
nal points. There were, in addition to the brazen sea, ten 
smaller brazen lavers, which were also set off with various 
ornaments, five on the north and five on the south side of 
the court They rested on bases and wheels of brass, were 
each six feet in circumference, and held forty baths. The 
flesh of the victims that were sacrificed was washed in 
these lavers. 1 Kings vii, 27-39 ; 2 Chron. iv, 6. 

The sanctuary was ninety feet long, thirty broad, and 
forty-five high, with the exception of the part called the 
sanctissimum or most holy, the height of which was only 
thirty feet, so that there remained above it a room fifteen 
feet high. The windows were latticed. 

In front of the sanctuary was the porch, one hundred and 
eighty feet high, thirty broad from north to south, and 
fifteen long from east to west. 1 Kings vi, 3 ; 2 Chron. iii, 4. 
Two columns of brass were erected near the entrance of this 
porch, each eighteen feet in circumference. The one to the 
north was called Jachin ; the other, to the south, was called 
Boaz. The height of the shafts of these columns was 
twenty-seven feet, the capitals seven and a half, and the base 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY? 229 

nineteen and a half, making in all forty-five feet. These 
pillars were profusely ornamented with carved representations 
of leaves, pomegranates, net, and lily work. They were 
hollow within, and the brass of which they were made was 
four inches thick. 1 Kings vii, 15-20; 2 Chron. hi, 15-17. 

A gallery extended along the sides of the sanctuary, with 
the exception of the eastern, which was three stories high. 
It was constructed of beams and planks, and there was an 
ascent to it on the south by means of a flight of winding- 
stairs. 1 Kings vi, 5, 6-8. The sanctuary itself was con- 
structed of square stones, covered with boards of cedar 
within and without, in which a variety of ornamental figures 
were cut, and which was overlaid with leaves of gold. The 
passage into the porch was very lofty and broad ; but it was 
merely an open entrance, without any door. The entrance 
into the sanctuary, on the contrary, was closed by a valve or 
folding-door, made of the oleaster or wild olive, which was 
ornamented with specimens of carved work, in the shape of 
cherubim, palms, and flowers. It was covered with gold, 
and turned on golden hinges. 1 Kings vi, 33-35. 

The door that operTed into the sanctissimum or holy of 
holies, which was pentagonal in form, was adorned and en- 
riched in the same way with that of the sanctuary. Both 
doors were covered with a veil of linen, wrought with em- 
broidery. 

Within the sanctuary was the altar of incense, overlaid 
with gold, ten tables, also overlaid with gold, and ten golden 
candlesticks, five on the north and five en the south side. 
On these tables were placed twelve loaves and a hundred 
golden cups. The other vessels of the sanctuary were like- 
wise more numerous than those in the tabernacle. 

The ark of the covenant was placed in the holy of holies. 
Its position was such that the rods touched the veil, from 
which circumstance it may be inferred that the door of this 
apartment stood open. 1 Kings viii, 8 ; 2 Chron. v, 9. 

Near the ark were two cherubim, made of the wood of 



230 MANUA OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

the wild olive and covered with gold, each of which was fif- 
teen feet high, and each extended one of its wings over the 
ark to the "middle of it, and the other to the wall. 1 Kings 
vi, 23-28; 2 Chron. iii, 10-13. 

The temple of Zerubbabel, which was completed B. C. 515, 
was, in height and breadth, ninety feet. Its length is not 
known. It differed from Solomon's Temple in several re- 
spects, the more important of which were that there was only- 
one candlestick and one golden table. The ark of the cove- 
nant, the sacred oil, the Urim and Thummim, and the sacred 
fire were gone, and also that singular cloud, the Shekinah, 
which anciently was seen over the tabernacle, and afterwards 
filled the temple. 2 Chron. v, 13, 14; vi, 1; vii, 1-3; 
1 Kings viii, 10-12. 

Herod rendered the temple, by repairs and additions, exceed- 
ingly magnificent. As improved by Herod, it had three courts, 
or open areas, each one of which was situated above the other. 
The first court was enclosed by that outer wall which has 
been described, and which was raised from the base of the 
mount. In the middle of this court was an ascent of four 
steps, which led to an enclosure of stone. On the gates that 
opened through this enclosure, and on the columns contigu- 
ous, were inscriptions in Hebrew, Greek and Latin, which 
interdicted, under penalty of death, any further entrance to 
the unclean and the Gentiles. Immediately back of this 
wall succeeded an ascent of fourteen steps, into a level space 
fifteen feet broad, which was succeeded by another ascent of 
five steps, to the gate of the second wall, which was sixty 
feet high outside, and thirty-seven within. This wall en- 
closed the court of the Israelites, while the first court, where 
the inscriptions were, was that of the Gentiles. 

Between the courts of the Israelites and the Gentiles, on 
the east side, was the court of the Hebrew women, which 
was separated from the court of the Israelites by a wall so 
low as to permit them to see the men, while they themselves 
remained unseen. The entrance to the court of the women 



BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 231 

was through two gates, one on the north and the other on 
the south side. 

The quadrangular area, immediately around the altar and 
the sanctuary, was called the court of the priests. It was 
surrounded by a low but elegant enclosure, so that the 
people had an opportunity of looking into it, while, at the 
same time, they were not permitted to enter. 

The largest gate was situated in the outer wall, on the 
east side. It was called The Beautiful, Qvoa vgata, and 
was splendidly ornamented with Corinthian brass, which was 
reckoned preferable to silver or gold. This gate equalled 
the sanctuary in height, which, in the highest place, was 
more than a hundred and fifty feet. The folds of this gate 
were seventy-five feet high and sixty broad, and were cov- 
ered with plates of gold and silver. The ascent to it was 
from the valley of Kedron, over many steps. To the south 
of the temple there was a valley six hundred feet deep. 
There was a gate, nevertheless, in that direction, leading from 
the wall into the lower part of the city. On the west side 
two gates led, by numerous steps, into the valley below, 
which ran in a southern direction, and was filled with houses. 
On the western side there were also two other gates besides 
these, one of which connected the temple with Mount Zion, 
by means of a bridge over the valley, and the other con- 
ducted into the lower part of the city. On the north there 
was no gate, but the tower or castle of Antonia was con- 
nected with the temple by means of a subterranean passage. 
On the north and south sides of the inner wall there were 
six gates, three on each side, which faced each other. On 
the eastern side there was a gate which corresponded to The 
Beautiful Gate, and led into the court of the women. The 
western side of the inner wall, which was contiguous to the 
sanctuary, had no gate. All these gates had folds. They 
were forty-five feet high and twenty-two broad. The thresh- 
olds and the posts, as well as the gates, were covered with 
silver and gold. They were all surmounted with a sort of 



232 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

turret, which increased the height to sixty feet. Around 
the gates were vacant spaces, where the people were in the 
habit of assembling. 

A triple porch extended around the southern wall of the 
court of the Gentiles ; but the porches that were contiguous 
to the northern, eastern, and western sides or walls of this 
court, were merely double. The porches in the court of the 
Israelites were double likewise. Each double porch rested 
on a triple, and each triple porch on a quadruple row of 
columns, the last row being contiguous to the wall. The 
columns, which were Corinthian, were hewn out of white 
marble, and were thirty-seven feet high ; but the entire alti- 
tude, including pedestals, capitals, cornice, and roof, was 
nearly sixty-five. The columns were so large that three men 
could scarcely extend their arms round them. The roof, 
which was flat, was constructed of cedar-wood. Each of 
these porches was forty-five feet broad and seventy-five feet 
high, with this exception, that the middle one, on the south 
side, was sixty-two feet broad and one hundred and fifty high, 
from the roof of which to the valley below was seven hun- 
dred and fifty feet. It was this porch, without doubt, that 
St. Matthew (iv, 5) called rrrepvyiov rov cegov, the pinnacle 
of the temple. The eastern porch of the court of the Gen- 
tiles was called Solomon's. 

All the porches were paved with marble of various col- 
ours. Those in the court of the Gentiles were resorted to 
by money-changers and those who sold animals destined for 
the altar. 

The altar for the victims was constructed of unhewn 
stones, twenty-two feet high and seventy-five in length and 
breadth, the corners of which projected upwards like horns. 
The ascent to it was on the south side. 

The sanctuary, or temple proper, was constructed of white 
marble, and higher than the court of the priests. It was 
approached by an ascent of twelve steps. The porch of the 
sanctuary, npovaog, was a hundred and fifty feet high and 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 233 

as many broad. The open space which served as an en- 
trance into it, and which was destitute of folds or door of 
any sort, was one hundred and five feet high and thirty- 
seven broad. 

The interior of the porch was one hundred and thirty-five 
feet high, seventy-five from north to south, and thirty from 
east to west; so that on the north and south there was 
room for recesses or chambers, of thirty feet in extent. 

The entrance, which opened into the sanctuary, was sev- 
enty-seven feet high and twenty-four broad. Over it was 
the figure of a vine, in gold, of the size of a man, and loaded 
with golden clusters. This entrance was closed with an 
embroidered veil. It was in the porch of the temple that 
Judas cast down the thirty pieces of silver. Matt, xxvii, 5. 

The sanctuary itself was thirty feet broad, ninety long, 
and ninety high. It was surrounded on three sides with a 
structure three stories high, making an altitude of sixty feet. 
It equalled the porch in breadth, into the two chambers of 
which there was an entrance from it. On the flat roof of 
the sanctuary were erected long, sharp rods of iron, covered 
with gold. 

From the sanctuary we enter the sanctissimum, or holy 
of holies, which was thirty feet long, thirty broad, and thirty 
high, so that there were two stories above, each of thirty 
cubits. In the sanctuary were the golden candlestick, the 
golden table, and the altar of incense; but in the most holy 
place nothing was deposited. The walls within and without 
were covered with gold, and it was separated from the sanc- 
tuary by an embroidered veil. 

Synagogues. 

Although the sacrifices could not be offered, except in 
the tabernacle or temple, all the other exercises of religion 
were restricted to no particular place. Accordingly we find 
that the praises of God were sung, at a very ancient period, 
in the schools of the prophets; and those who felt any par- 



234 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

ticular interest in religion, were assembled by the seers on 
the Sabbath and the new moons, for prayers and religious in- 
struction. 1 Sam. x, 5-11 ; xix, 18-24 ; 2 Kings iv, 23. 

During the Babylonish captivity the Jews, who were then 
deprived of their customary religious privileges, were wont to 
collect around some prophet, or other pious man, who taught 
them and their children in religion, exhorted to good con- 
duct, and read one of the sacred books. Ezek. xiv, 1 ; xx, 1 ; 
Dan. vi, 11 ; Neh. viii, 18. These assemblies or meetings 
became, in progress of time, fixed to certain places, and a 
regular order was observed in them. This was the origin 
of synagogues. 

In speaking of synagogues it is worthy of notice that they 
were first established in the reign of the Maccabean princes. 
In foreign countries it is supposed they existed at an earlier 
day, inasmuch as the apostles found them* wherever they 
travelled among the Jews. They were built in imitation of 
the temple, with a court and porches. In the centre of the 
court is a chapel, supported by four columns, in which is 
placed, on an elevation, a roll of the Book of the Law, 
which is publicly read on appointed days. The seats near- 
est the chapel were called the uppermost, and esteemed the 
most honourable. Matt, xxiii, 6 ; James ii, 3. 

The proseuchce, ixoootv)(ai, are supposed to have been 
smaller synagogues, where the Jews assembled for religious 
exercises. They were distinguished from the synagogue 
proper in not being set apart especially for divine worship. 
Acts xvi, 13-16. When the Jews had no synagogues they 
held their religious meetings in dwelling-houses. The apos- 
tles imitated them in this ; hence we hear of Churches in 
houses. Rom. xvi, 5 ; 1 Cor. xvi, 19 ; Col. iv, 15 ; Philem. 2 ; 
Acts ii, 46 ; v, 42. 

Swaycdyri means literally a convention or assembly ; 
tropically, it is used as the place of meeting. In the same 
way efCfchrjoia means literally a calling together ; tropically, 
the place of convocation. 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 235 

SACRED SEASONS. 
Sabbath. 

In speaking of sacred seasons, the Sabbath, oafifiarov, is 
particularly 'worthy of notice. The practice of consecrating 
the Sabbath, or seventh day of the week, originated from what 
is stated in Gen. ii, 1-3. That it was observed from the 
creation is evident from the form of the commandment, (Exod. 
xx, 8,) Remember the Sabbath, &c. It was no new thing, 
and it had been previously spoken of in Exod. xvi, 22-30. 

The Sabbath was designed to exhibit a symbolic represen- 
tation that God was the creator of the universe, and ought to 
be worshipped ; hence the same punishment, viz., death, 
was attached to a violation of this institution, that there was 
to an open defection from the true God. Exod. xxxv, 2 ; 
Num. xv, 32-36. 

The more recent Jews distinguished certain Sabbaths by 
particular names. The Sabbath, for instance, immediately 
preceding the Passover, was denominated the Great Sabbath. 
John xix, 31. Another kind of Sabbath is called the second 
first, odpfiarov 6evrep6rTpG)rov. Luke vi, 1. *It is difficult 
to tell what this meant. 

The name of Sabbath, which signifies rest, is an intimation 
that all ordinary labour is to be suspended on that day. 
There were exceptions to this in the following things : — 
The healing of the sick was not forbidden; nor a walk or 
journey of a thousand geometrical paces ; nor the plucking a 
few ears of corn to appease hunger ; nor the performing any 
act of necessity, such as feeding cattle, plucking them from 
the ditch, &c. Matt, xii, 1-15 ; Luke vi, 1-5 ; xiii, 10-17 ; 
Mark iii, 2 ; John v, 2-18 ; ix, 1-34. 

Certain duties of a religious nature were not prohibited, 
such as circumcision on the eighth day, the slaughter and 
burning of victims, and the labours in general connected with 
the observances practised in the tabernacle. Lev. vi, 8 ; 
Num. xxviii, 3 ; Matt, xii, 2 ; John vii, 23. 



236 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Sorrow on the Sabbath day was an indication of great 
calamity. Hosea ii r 11 ; Lam. ii, 6. The Hebrews spent 
the day in dancing, singing songs, and playing on instru- 
ments. These, however, were religious exercises. Exod. xv, 
20, 21; xxxii, 6, 1 ; 2 Sam. vi, 14; Psa. lxviii, 25-27; 
cxlix, 3 ; cl, 4. 

Sabbatic Year. 

As the period of seven days was completed by the Sabbath, 
so a period of seven years was completed by the Sabbatic 
year. It was the design of this year to afford a longer op- 
portunity for impressing on the mind the great truth that 
God was the creator and governor of the world, and alone 
ought to be worshipped. During the feast of tabernacles this 
year the law was to be publicly read for eight days together, 
either in the tabernacle or temple. Deut. xxxi, 10-13. 
Debts were not collected, (Deut. xv, 1, 2,) though they were 
not cancelled. 

Year of Jubilee. 

The Jubilee followed seven Sabbatic years, i. e., it was on 
the fiftieth year. Lev. xxv, 8-11. The return of the year of 
jubilee was announced on the tenth day of the seventh 
month, or Tishni — October — being the day of propitiation or 
atonement, by the sound of the trumpet Lev. xxv, 8-13 ; 
xxvii, 24 ; Num. xxxvi, 4 ; Isa. lxi, 1,2. 

All the servants of Hebrew origin, on the year of jubilee, 
obtained their freedom. Lev. xxv, 39-46 ; Jer. xxxiv, 7, 
et seq. 

All the fields throughout the country, and the houses in 
the cities and villages of the Levites and priests, which had 
been sold on the preceding years, were returned on the year 
of jubilee to the sellers, with the exception of those which had 
been consecrated to God, and had not been redeemed before 
the return of said year. Lev. xxv, 10, 13, 17, 24, 28 ; xxvii, 
16-21. 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 237 

Debtors, for the most part, pledged or mortgaged their 
land to a creditor, or left it to his use till the time of pay- 
ment ; so that it was in effect sold to the creditor, and was 
accordingly restored to the debtor on the year of jubilee. 
At this time there was a general cancelling of debts. 

New Moons. 

The return of the new moons was announced by the 
sounding of the silver trumpets. It was commanded that, 
on the new moons, in addition to the daily sacrifices, two 
bullocks, a ram, and seven sheep, should be offered to God, 
together with a meal-offering and a libation. These were 
to constitute the burnt-offering, and a goat the sin-offering. 

Passover. 

The festival of the Passover was instituted for the purpose 
of preserving the memory of the deliverance of the Hebrews 
from Egyptian servitude, and of the safety of their first-born 
on the night in which the first-born of the Egyptians perished. 
Exod. xii. It was celebrated for seven days, viz., from the 
15th to the 21st of April. Exod. xii, 1-28; xxiii, 15 ; Lev. 
xxiii, 4-8; Num. xxviii, 16-25; Deut. xvi, 1-8. During 
the whole of this period the people ate unleavened bread, 
and hence it was called the feast of unleavened bread. Exod. 
xii, 18 ; xiii, 6, 7 ; xxiii, 15 ; Lev. xxiii, 6 ; Num. xxviii, 17. 
On the 10th day of the month the master, or head of a 
family, separated a ram or a goat of a year old, which he 
slew on the 14th, between the two evenings, before the altar. 
Deut. xvi, 2, 5, 6. The priest sprinkled the blood upon the 
bottom of the altar. In Egypt it was sprinkled on the 
lintels and door-posts. Exod. xii, 7. The ram or kid was 
roasted w r hole, with two spits thrust through it, the one 
lengthwise, and the other transversely crossing, near the fore 
legs, so that the animal was in a manner crucified. Thus 
roasted, it was served up with a salad of wild and bitter herbs, 
and with the flesh of other sacrifices. Not fewer than ten, 



238 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

nor more than twenty persons, were admitted to these 
sacred feasts. The command not to break a bone was ob- 
served ever after the original foundation of this feast. 

The master of the family, after the paschal supper is pre- 
pared, blesses the bread, and breaks it, and divides it among 
the rest, who are seated around him, so that each one may 
receive a part, and has liberty, if he chooses, to dip it, before 
eating, into a vessel of sauce. 

The third cup of wine which is drunk on this occasion is 
properly termed the cup of be7iediction. Matt, xxvi, 27; 
1 Cor. x, 16. After this, songs of praise are sung, an d- 
another cup is drank, (Mark xiv, 26,) and another Psalm 
sung. The wine is mingled with water. 

On the second day of the Passover, i. e., the 16th, a sheaf 
of barley was offered up ; also a lamb of a year old, for a 
burnt-offering ; also a meal-offering and a libation. On every 
day of the Paschal week there were offerings more than 
usual, and victims were immolated for sin. Num. xxviii, 
16-25. 

Pentecost. 

Forty-nine days after the 16th of April introduced the 
Pentecost, TTevrrjKoori], i. e., the fiftieth. It was also called 
the feast of weeks, from the circumstance that it followed a 
succession of seven weeks. Exod. xxxiv, 22 ; Lev. xxiii, 
15, 16; Num. xxviii, 26; Deut. xvi, 10; Acts ii, 1. It 
was a festival of thanks for the harvest, and was accordingly 
called the feast of the harvest. And it was for the same 
reason that two loaves, made of new meal, and the tenth 
part of an ephah of grain, were offered as the^ first-fruits. 
Lev. xxiii, 17 ; JSTum. xxviii, 26. Hence the Pentecost 
is sometimes called the day of the first-fruits. On this 
day many Jews from foreign countries assembled at 
Jerusalem. 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 239 

Feast of Tabernacles. 

The feast of tabernacles was celebrated from the 15th to 
the 23d of October. The last day was the one most par- 
ticularly distinguished as a festival. Leviticus xxiii, 34-42 ; 
Num. xxix, 12-35 ; Deut. xvi, 12-15 ; Neh. viii, 18 ; John 
vii, 2-37. 

It was instituted in memory of the journey through the 
Arabian wilderness. During its continuance the Jews dwelt 
in booths or tents, as they did in their journey from Egypt. 
Lev. xxiii, 42, 43. It was also called the feast of the 
gathering, in honour of the vintage. It was a season of 
great joy among the Jews. 

More public sacrifices were directed to be offered on this 
occasion than on the other festivals. Num. xxix, 12-39; 
Deut. xvi, 14, 15 ; Lev. xxiii, 38-40. 

The fifth day before the feast of tabernacles, viz., the 
10th of October, was the day of propitiation or atonement 
Lev. xvi, 1-34 ; Exod. xxiii, 26-30 ; Num. xxix, 1-11. It 
was a day of fasting, and the only one during the whole 
of the year when food was interdicted from evening to 
evening. Lev. xxiii, 27-29; xxv, 9. 

The high priest himself conducted the sacred services of 
this day, and the ceremonies now to be mentioned, which 
differed from those on other occasions, were performed by 
him alone. When he had washed himself in water, put on 
his white linen, hose, and coat, and adjusted his girdle, he 
conducted to the altar, with a sacerdotal mitre on his head, a 
bullock, destined to be slain for the sins of himself and his 
family ; also two goats, for the sins of the people ; the one of 
which was selected by lot, to be sacrificed to God, the other 
was permitted to make an unmolested escape. Lev. xvi, 6-19. 
Presently he slew the bullock for his own sins, and the goat 
which had been selected by lot for that purpose for the sins 
of the people. He then filled a censer with burning coals 
from the altar, and putting two handfuls of incense into a 



240 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

vase, lie bore the incense into the sanctissimum, or holy of 
holies. Having here poured the incense, he returned, took 
the blood of the bullock and the goat, and went again into 
the most holy place. With his ringer he first sprinkled the 
blood of the bullock, and afterwards the blood of the goat, 
upon the lid of the ark of the covenant ; and seven times, 
also, he sprinkled it upon the floor before the ark. He then 
returned from the most holy, to the holy place or sanctuary, 
and sprinkled the horns of the golden altar, which was there 
placed, with the blood of the bullock and the goat, and 
scattered the blood seven times over the surface of the altar. 
This was done as an expiation for the uncleanness and sins 
of the children of Israel. Lev. xvi, 11-19. The high priest, 
then going into the court of the tabernacle, placed both hands, 
with great solemnity, on the head of the scape-goat, as a 
symbolic representation that the animal was loaded with the 
sins of the people. It was then delivered to a man, who led 
it away into the wilderness, and let it go free, to signify the 
liberation of the Israelites from the punishment due to their 
sins. The goat which was slain for the sins of the 
people, and the bullock slain for those of the high 
priest, were designed to signify that they were guilty, 
and that they merited punishment; and were to be burnt 
whole beyond the limits of the camp or the city. Lev. 
xvi, 20, 22, 26, 28. The high priest then took off his 
white vestments, and assuming the splendid robes of his 
office, offered a holocaust for himself and the people, 
and then offered another sin-offering. Lev. xvi, 23-25 ; 
Num. xxix, T— 11* 

Fasts. 

The Hebrews were in the habit of fasting whenever any 
calamity came upon them. Judg. xx, 26 ; 1 Sam. vii, 6 ; 
xxxi, 13 ; 2 Sam. iii, 35; Isa. lviii, 3-12. About the time 
of the captivity they instituted anniversary fast days, as 
follows :— 






BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 241 

1. The seventeenth of July, in memory of the capture of 
Jerusalem. Jer. lii, 6, 7; Zech. viii, 19. 

2. The ninth day of August, in memory of the burning of 
the temple. Zech. vii, 3 ; viii, 19. 

3. The third day of October, in memory of the death of 
Gedaliah. Jer. xl, 4; Zech. vii, 5; viii, 19. 

4. The tenth day of January, in memory of the com- 
mencement of the attack on Jerusalem. Zech. viii, 19. 

Feasts or Festivals. 

The feast of purim, or lot, was held on the fifteenth day 
of March, in commemoration of the deliverance of the Jews 
from the cruel designs of Haman. Esther iii, 7 ; ix, 26. 

The festival of encomia, or the purification of the temple. 
The temple was profaned by Antiochus Epiphanes in the 
y ear 167, and was purified in the year 164 before Christ. 
Its dedication, at the time of its being purified, was celebrated 
eight days with many sacrifices, beginning on the twenty- 
fifth of December. This dedication was converted into an 
anniversary. 1 Mac. iv, 52, 59 ; 2 Mac. x, 1-8 ; John x, 22. 

SACKED THINGS. 
Sacrifices. 

A sacrifice is that which is offered directly to God, and is 
in some way destroyed or changed, which is done, as far as 
respects the flesh employed in the sacrifice, by burning it, 
and as far as concerns the libation, in this : in a sacrifice, 
there must be a real change or destruction of the thing 
offered ; whereas an oblation is but a simple offering or gift. 
It is accordingly to be understood, that neither the wood 
necessary for cherishing the fire of the altar, nor any presents 
which might at any time be offered for the use of the temple 
or sanctuary, are properly called sacrifices. 

Sacrifices were coeval with the existence of the human 
race. Gen. iv, 3-5; viii, 20; xii, 7; xiii, 4; xv, 9-21; 

11 



242 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

xxii, 13. Some of the sacrifices that were authorized by 
Moses were bloody, (slain victims,) others were not; the 
latter consisted of cakes, wafers, meal, and libations of wine. 
The bloody sacrifices were some of them expiatory and some 
of them thank-offerings. The expiatory offerings were either 
holocausts, sacrifices for sin, or trespass-offerings. The 
holocausts were offered for the whole people. The expiatory 
secured expiation in a civil point of view. Sacrifices 
of this kind were slain to the north of the altar, and were 
regarded as most holy. The thank-offering was slain to the 
south of the altar, parts of which were burnt, parts were 
given to the priests, and parts to the person who brought the 
sacrifice. 

The victims to be offered were only of the ox kind, and 
sheep, and goats — no wild beasts being permitted; also, 
turtle-doves and young pigeons. They must all be perfect, 
having no defect. 

The person who offered the victim presented it before God, 
i e., led it before the altar in the court, with its head turned 
towards the door of the sanctuary. The offerer placed his 
hand upon the head of the victim, and by this imposition 
the victim was substituted in the place of the person who 
brought it to the altar. 

Holocausts were sacrifices in which the victims were wholly 
consumed. The victims were bullocks of three years old, 
goats and lambs of a year old, turtle-doves and young 
pigeons. 

The victims selected for sin-offerings were as follows, viz., 
a bullock for the high priest, a goat for the civil magistrate, 
a kid or lamb for private persons, a turtle-dove and a young 
pigeon also a lamb for mothers at childbirth, a goat, dove, 
or pigeon for a leper, and a dove or pigeon for a contaminated 
Nazarite. 

Trespass-offerings were not required of the people as 
body. They were offered by persons who, through ignorance, 
mistake, or want of reflection, had committed trespasses, and 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 243 

were subsequently made conscious of their error. Lev. iv, 
1-16; v, 1-19. 

Peace or thank-offerings were sacrifices offered as an in- 
dication of gratitude, and were accompanied with unleavened 
cakes and oil. Lev. iii, 1-17 ; vii, 11, 23, 27, 28, 35. 

First-Born. 

The first-born, both of men and animals, was to be 
consecrated to God. The first-born children were to be 
presented before the Lord, and were to be redeemed accord- 
ing to the estimation of the priest; but the amount of 
the sum paid in this redemption could not exceed five 
shekels. They could not be redeemed before the age of a 
month, and for the most part were not so till the ceremony 
of purification for childbirth. Num. xviii, 14-16 ; Exod. 
xiii, 13 ; Luke ii,. 22. 

The first-born cattle of sheep and goats, from eight days 
to a year old, were to be offered in sacrifice, and the parts 
designated being burnt, the remainder was left to the priests. 
Num. xviii, 17, 18 ; Lev. xxvii, 26. It was in this way that 
the Hebrews exhibited their gratitude to God, who preserved 
their first-born in Egypt from the impending destruction. 
Exod. xiii, 2, 11, 16 ; Num. iii, 12, 13. The first-born sons 
were by birth priests, and were to be redeemed from serving 
at the altar. Num. iii, 20-51. 

First-Fruits. 

The first sheaf of barley, on the second day of the Pass- 
over, and the first loaves on the feast of Pentecost, were 
offered in the name of the people. Individuals were obliged 
to offer the first-fruits of the vine, of fruit-trees, of their grain, 
honey, and wool, by means of which offerings they exhibited 
that gratitude which was due to God for the country he had 
given them. Exod. xxiii, 19 ; Lev. ii, 12 ; Num. xv, 17-21 ; 
xviii, 11-13; Deut. xxvi, 1-11. The offerings thus made 



244 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

became the property of the priests. Num. xviii, 11-13; 
Deut. xviii, 4. 

Second first-fruits were appropriated to the eucharistical 
sacrifices. 

Tithes. 

Tithes are very ancient, and were exacted in the earliest 
times among almost all nations. Abraham offered the tithes 
of his spoils to Melchizedec, priest of the most high God. 
Gen. xiv, 20. Jacob vowed unto God the tenth of all his 
income. This vow was observed by himself and all his 
posterity. Gen. xxviii, 22. Tithing is mentioned as a 
practice well known. Deut. xii, 11, 17, 19; xiv, 22, 23. 
Tithes were presented every year at the tabernacle, with one 
exception. Every third year they were permitted to make a 
feast of them at their own houses, for servants, widows, 
orphans, the poor, and the Levites. Deut. xiv, 28, 29 ; xxvi, 
12-15. Tithes were of the first and second kind. Lev. 
xxvii, 30 ; Num. xviii, 20-24 ; Deut. xiv, 22, 23 ; ISTeh. 
xiii, 5-12. 

Sacred Oil. 

The sacred oil with which the tabernacle, the ark of the 
covenant, the golden candlestick, the table, the altar of in- 
cense, the altar of burnt-offerings, the laver, and all the 
sacred utensils, and, indeed, the priests themselves were 
anointed, was composed of the oil of olives, the richest 
myrrh, cassia, cinnamon, and sweet calamus. Exod. xxx, 
20-23. 

Oaths. 

The person who confirmed his assertion by a voluntary 
oath pronounced the same with his right hand elevated. 
Sometimes the swearer omitted the imprecation, as if he 
were afraid to utter it. Gen. xiv, 22, 23; Psa. cvi, 26; 
lxxx, 18; Ezek. xvii, 18. 



BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 245 

When the oath was exacted by a judge it was put in 
form, and the person responded, " So let it be" or, u Thou 
hast said." Num. v, 19-22; Lev. v, 1 ; 1 Kings xxii, 16; 
Deut. xxvii, 15-26. 

As an oath was an appeal to God, the taking a false oath 
was considered a heinous crime, and perjury was accordingly 
forbidden in those words, " Thou shalt not take the name of 
the Lord thy God in vain" Exod. xx, 6. It was common 
in Egypt to swear by the life of the king. The Hebrews 
also swore by cities and consecrated places, such as Hebron, 
Shilo, and Jerusalem. 

The Jews, in the time of Christ, were in the habit of 
swearing by the altar, by Jerusalem, by heaven, by the earth, 
by themselves, by their heads, by the gold of the temple, by 
sacrifices, <fec, &c. Because the name of God was not in 
these oaths they considered them as imposing but small 
obligation. Matt, v, 33-37 ; xxiii, 16-22. 

Vows. 

Vows were solemn promises made by persons to consecrate 
themselves to God, or something which they intended to set 
apart for his service. The earliest vow is that of Jacob. 
Gen. xxviii, 22. The father and husband had power of an- 
nulling the vows of a daughter or a wife. Num. xxx, 2-17. 

Vows were of two kinds, affirmative or negative. Affirm- 
ative vows consisted in the consecration of money, lands, 
houses, animals, servants, sons, and the person himself to 
God. Negative vows consisted in abstaining from anything 
lawful, and were denominated a restraint on the appetite. 
The principal among this class of vows was that of the Naz- 

arites. 

Prayers. 

It was at first an unspoken emotion of reverence and 
gratitude to God that constituted prayer. Supplications 
were subsequently added. Gen. xii, 8 ; xxi, 33 ; xxiv, 26-48 ; 
xxvi, 25; xxxii, 9-12; Deut. xxvi, 3, 10, 13, 15. 



246 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Our Lord's prayer (Matt, vi, 9-13) is a selection of the 
most devotional and appropriate sentiments from the Jewish 
formularies extant in his time. 

Hymns were sung on particular occasions, accompanied 
with sacred dances and instruments of music. Exod. xv; 
Judg. v; 1 Kings viii, 14, 21, 23, 53; Psa. lxxii, 20; Neh. 
viii, 6. 

Private prayer was uttered aloud. 1 Sam. i, 12-15 ; Luke 
xviii, 10-14. The Hebrews prayed in various attitudes, such 
as standing, kneeling, and prostration on the ground. They 
raised their hands, and sometimes smote upon their breasts. 
Anciently there were no fixed hours for prayer. Daniel, at 
a more recent period, prayed three times a day. 

Worship was held in the synagogues on the Sabbath day. 
The exercises consisted in reading from the Mosaic law, sing- 
ing the doxology, and reading from the prophets. The 
apostles gathered the first Churches. After they were exclu- 
ded from them they assembled at evening, at the house of 
some friend, which was lighted for the purpose with lamps. 
Acts xx, 7-11. The reader or speaker stood — the others sat. 
All arose in time of prayer. Whatever was stated in a 
foreign tongue was immediately interpreted. 1 Cor. xiv, 1-33. 

Note. — The above part was compiled from the following 
authors, viz. : — Jahn, Michaelis, and Kitto. Should the reader 
wish to extend his researches, he may consult the writings of the 
above authors with great profit. It is modestly conceived, how- 
ever, that all essential to Biblical archaeology will be found in the 
above pages. 



fart Sixty. 

BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE FIRST RACES OF MANKIND. 

In treating of the nations of the Bible, as we have of the 
times, manners, and customs, events, countries, and languages 
of the Bible, it shall be our object to confine ourselves strictly 
to those mentioned in its history, and in doing so shall call 
attention to them, as far as practicable, in the order in which 
they occur in the sacred record. The nations of the Bible 
may be divided into the ante and post diluvian. In regard 
to the former we know but little. The period from the Cre- 
ation to the Deluge embraced ten generations, and it is sup- 
posed, by one of the ablest writers on the patriarchal age, 
that the population of the earth was as great at that time as 
it is at the present. Whether the inhabitants before the 
Deluge were united in one, or divided into many nations, 
we have no means of knowing. One thing is certain : the 
race had become numerous and powerful, as well as wicked 
and revengeful ; and, in the days of Enoch and Noah, their 
extraordinary crimes involved the whole race, with the ex- 
ception of one family, in destruction. We shall not stop 
here to discuss the question in regard to the unity of the 
human race, touching their oneness of origin. These ques- 
tions are now undergoing an investigation, in the hands of 
naturalists and historians, and they do not, in the least, affect 
the verity of the sacred record. Whether mankind proceeded 
from one or a dozen pairs is a matter of no consequence, as 
it does not involve the Bible account of our common origin. 



248 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

It is enough for us to show what nations took their origin 
in Adam, and the several relations they sustained to the 
events of the Bible. It is the subject of Biblical ethnography 
we propose to discuss in this chapter, and hence we shall 
nowhere run across, nor even so much as touch the lines of 
controversy, in relation to the primitive races of the earth. 

The generations of the Bible are given in clear historical 
narrative, unmixed with fable, and present an unbroken 
stream from Adam to Noah, embracing a period of near two 
thousand years. From the sons of Noah, Europe, Asia, and 
Africa were peopled by the different races which originally 
inhabited them. From Japheth descended the Germans, 
Turks, Hungarians, Fins, Medes, Spaniards, Greeks, Romans, 
Tartars, Muscovites, and Thracians. This is denominated the 
Caucasian, or white race. From Shem proceeded the Per- 
sians, Assyrians, Jews, Arabians, Lydians, and Syrians. This 
is denominated the olive, or Mongolian race. From Ham 
descended the Babylonians, Egyptians, Libyans, and Phoeni- 
cians. Ham was the father of the black race. 

These sons, and their descendants, went out from the val- 
ley of the Euphrates, to build cities and found nations. As 
population increased, they conceived the idea of building a 
tower of immense size and height, that would prove a bond 
of union, and form a great central point for all the families 
and tribes. Up to this time there was but one language, 
and Jehovah, to break up this arrangement, evidently with 
the design of scattering them abroad, that all parts of the 
earth might be peopled, confounded their language, or, what 
was equivalent, gave them different forms of speech. From 
this confusion of tongues the tower was afterwards named 
Babel, as significant of the miracle which had been wrought 
by the Almighty. 



BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 249 

CHAPTER II. 

THE ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 

From this date the Assyrian empire took its rise, about one 
hundred and twenty-seven years after the Deluge. The As- 
syrians derive their name from Ashur, who, according to the 
Mosaic account, left the land of Shinar after the confusion 
of Babel, and built Nineveh and other cities. The city of 
Nineveh was rich in magnificence beyond any city of an- 
tiquity. The history of the Assyrians is involved in the 
greatest obscurity, and all the satisfactory information we 
have respecting them is drawn from the sacred annals. The 
Babylonian empire, which was founded about the same 
time, by Nimrod, " the mighty hunter" of Scripture, lay on 
both sides of the Euphrates, near its mouth, and also bore 
the name of Chaldea. It is thought by some that before the 
confusion of tongues Babylonia was founded. The city of 
Babylon, built upon the site of Babel, was made, in after 
years, to excel, if possible, in magnificence, the proud city 
of Nineveh. The Assyrians and Babylonians were governed 
by m on arch s whose will was supreme. They were at once 
the heads of Church as well as State, and claimed divine 
honours. Their religion was a species of Sabeanism. They 
were considerably advanced in the mechanic and fine arts. 
They were among the earliest nations that possessed the art 
of alphabetical writing. Their language was the Semitic, of 
which the Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac are branches, the 
characters of which are to this day undecipherable. Should 
a key to this long-lost language be discovered, the characters 
which have recently been found engraven on brick and tile, 
and alabaster slabs, as brought to light by the excavations 
of Layard, will throw much valuable light upon the history 
of these once vast and flourishing empires. The nations 
have passed away like their mighty cities, and the descend- 

11* 



250 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

ants of Ishmael have taken their places, only, however, to 
wander in wildness over their plains and guard their ruins. 
The destruction of Babylon and Nineveh were of divine ap- 
pointment, and serve as melancholy memorials of the fate 
of all nations that forget God. Belshazzar having taken, 
with impious hands, the holy vessels of the temple of the 
Lord, and prostituted them to the vile purposes of his mid- 
night bacchanal, the handwriting of God, interpreted by 
Daniel, revealed the fate of his kingdom, and, on the same 
night, Cyrus having diverted the course of the river, his 
army entered the city and slew the king, and the empire 
passed under the dominion of the Persians. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE EGYPTIANS. 

We shall next call attention to the Egyptian nation. This 
nation, founded by Menes in the year of the world 2188, is 
remarkably identified with the Bible. Its history is inter- 
woven with some of the most interesting events of the sacred 
narrative, and hence must be deeply interesting to the Bibli- 
cal scholar. According to the commonly-received standard 
of chronology, the Egyptian empire was founded about 
one hundred and three years after the Assyrian; though 
in regard to this there is no certain knowledge. Egypt is 
still, though in ruins, a land of wonders. Obelisks, sphinxes, 
tombs, temples, and pyramids, many of which are standing 
almost as perfect as when they were finished by the artist 
two thousand years ago, meet the eye of the traveller where- 
ever he goes. The u land of Ham" was early peopled with 
the dispersed from Babel, and the rich and fertile valley of 
the Nile presented even greater attractions to the adventurer 
than those cf the Euphrates and Tigris. Here were the 
magnificent cities of Thebes and Memphis. In an early 



BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 251 

day Egypt was invaded by shepherd kings from Arabia, 
who possessed themselves of a part of the country. Abra- 
ham visited the city of Memphis, and was received at the 
court of the reigning Pharaoh with great hospitality. About 
two hundred years subsequent to the departure of Abraham 
from Egypt, a melancholy affair arose in the house and family 
of Jacob. The peculiar partiality shown by this patriarch 
for one of his sons, elicited the envy and consequent enmity 
of the rest, and they made the beloved of their father a vic- 
tim of that enmity. They determined on putting him to 
death, but commuted it to bondage and expatriation. Ara- 
bian merchants, on their way to Egypt, purchased Joseph, 
and sold him to a captain of Pharaoh's guard, named Poti- 
phar. While serving in the house of his master, he was 
charged by his mistress with a crime of which he was not 
guilty, and thrust into prison. While there he interpreted 
Pharaoh's dreams, in relation to the years of plenty and 
famine, was restored to liberty, and made vice-regent over all 
Egypt. During the prevalence of the famine the brethren 
of Joseph came into Egypt to purchase corn. A recognition 
and reconciliation took place, and the whole family, on the 
invitation of Pharaoh and Joseph, consisting of seventy per- 
sons, removed from Canaan to Egypt, and settled in Goshen. 
Here they led a pastoral life, and multiplied exceedingly, 
under the blessing of God. The days of Jacob were 
numbered, and, obtaining a promise of burial in his native 
land, he departed this life, was embalmed, and borne to 
Machpelah, by a procession of Egyptian magnificence which 
peculiarly impressed the Canaanites, where he was entombed 
beside those whom living he loved, and from whom in death 
he desired not to be separated. 

After living in Egypt nearly a hundred years, Joseph also 
finished his day and slept with his fathers. He was also 
embalmed, and placed in a sarcophagus in Egypt. After 
Joseph's death, with that of all his brethren and his genera- 
tion, there arose another king who "knew not Joseph"— 



252 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

supposed to be one of the shepherd kings — who, envying 
the prosperity of the Israelites, and fearing their power, de- 
vised means for their destruction. A decree was passed that 
all the male children should be cast into the river. While 
this decree was in force Moses was born. When he was 
three months old his mother made an ark of bulrushes, and, 
placing the child therein, deposited it among the flags, near 
the bank of the river. Little did that fond mother know 
that the fate of Egypt and Israel was contained in that frail 
vessel. He who guided Joseph into Egypt, and preserved 
him there, watched over Moses, and, by a wonderful train 
of providences, he was, like Joseph, introduced to royalty, 
and made an heir to the crown. When he arrived at ma- 
turity he espoused the cause of his oppressed and down- 
trodden people, and was obliged to flee from the country and 
take refuge in the mountains of Media. While there the 
Lord Jehovah appeared to him on Horeb, and, investing him 
with power, commissioned him to return to Egypt and deliver 
his brethren from bondage. On the refusal of Pharaoh to 
let the people go, the Almighty, by the hand of Moses, sent 
upon the whole land the most wonderful judgments. After 
a residence in Egypt of four hundred and thirty years, during 
which the children of Israel suffered many cruel hardships 
from their oppressors, upwards of six hundred thousand men, 
besides women and children, entered upon their journey to 
the land which the Lord had promised to their fathers. This 
happened during the reign of Thothmes the Third. This 
monarch succeeded in expelling the Hyk-sos from the coun- 
try, who had kept possession of Lower Egypt for two hun- 
dred and fifty-nine years. 

It will be interesting to consider the condition of Egypt 
at this period. It was the most celebrated for its learning, 
opulence, and magnificent monuments, of any country in 
the world. It had reached a high state of cultivation in the 
arts. The mysterious rites of its worship, the grandeur of 
its morality, and, above all, the perplexing enigma of its 



BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 253 

written monuments, threw an impenetrable veil over its his- 
tory. The learned approached this shadowy land as if, in 
the most obvious facts, they had to decipher a hieroglyphic 
legend, and inclined to look upon the Egyptians as a people 
that, even in the more modern periods of their history, re- 
tained the faint tints and ill-defined traits of remote antiquity, 
and which, consequently, might boast an antiquity beyond 
computation. By the persevering study of numerous schol- 
ars, at the head of whom stand Young and Champollion, 
the mysteries hidden beneath their hieroglyphics have been 
brought to light, and the lost history of this people, thus 
revived, takes its stand by the side of other empires. The 
paintings and sculptures found upon existing monuments 
reveal all the processes of the arts and of domestic life, the 
manners and customs of the earliest ages, with a definiteness 
and minute accuracy surpassing the most lucid and truthful 
narrative. The whole public and private life — from the bloody 
arena of mailed warriors to the puppet-show, from the dig- 
nified monarch to the nursery sports of children — is engraved 
and painted on these enduring monuments — fixed and change- 
less as eternity — ever ready to reveal to the student the 
events of ages gone by. 

From this time on to the close of their history as a nation, 
the Egyptians were almost constantly engaged in offensive 
or defensive wars with contiguous nations. Five hundred 
years after the departure of the Israelites, Shishak, king of 
Egypt, with an immense army, aided by the Ethiopians, in- 
vaded Judea, and plundered Jerusalem. 

Two hundred years later, x\n'y-sis the Blind was expelled 
by Sab'a-co, an Ethiopian conqueror, and a dynasty of three 
kings reigned in succession on the united thrones of Egypt 
and Ethiopia. After another period of one hundred years, 
Psammeticus obtained supreme power, and with him termi- 
nated all historical uncertainty. A few years subsequently, 
Pharaoh ISTecho subdued all Asia, as far as the Euphrates. 
He was finally defeated by Nebuchadnezzar. Pharaoh Necho 



254 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

was succeeded by Psammis, and Pharaoh. Hophra, and Ama- 
sis, and, finally, by Psammenitus, the last of Egyptian kings. 
Cambyses, the Persian monarch, invaded Egypt ; the Egyp- 
tian army was entirely overthrown, the nobles all put to 
death, with their king, and their wives and children reduced 
to slavery. Cambyses slew all the sacred animals of the 
Egyptians, destroyed their altars and idols, scourged their 
priests as slaves, and pillaged their temples. They made 
many ineffectual efforts to regain their independence, but 
prophecy had sealed the fate of the nation, and it was made 
desolate, and dispersed among the countries around them. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE JEWS. 

The nation which now claims our attention as the most 
prominent and eventful nation of the Bible, has been desig- 
nated by several names, as Hebrews, Israelites, and Jews ; 
these having been given to them in the successive periods of 
their history. The last is the name by which they have 
been called from the days of Judah, and is the cognomen by 
which they are called to the present day. 

"Without any reference to its religious history, this nation 
is perhaps the most remarkable in the annals of mankind. 
It sprang from one definite parent stock, in the year of the 
world 2000, and has ever since retained its individual, isola- 
ted character, amid an almost infinite variety of character. 
The Jews were called to be a " peculiar people," and they 
have ever been known as such, whether united in national 
sovereignty, under varying forms of government, or expelled 
from their native land and dispersed among other nations. 
They constitute, perhaps, the only unmingled race which can 
boast very remote antiquity, and, though hated, scorned, and 
oppressed in all countries, they subsist, a numerous and 



BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 255 

thriving people. In all the changes of manners and opinions 
around them, they rigidly preserve their divinely-appointed 
and time-hallowed institutions, their national spirit, and their 
deathless hope of restoration to grandeur and happiness in 
the home of their fathers. In the language of one, " If we 
speak of pedigrees, the Talbots, Percys, and Howards are 
like mushrooms of yesterday. Show me a Jew, and you 
show me a man whose genealogical tree springs from Abra- 
ham's bosom— whose family is older than the decalogue — 
and who bears incontrovertible evidence, in every line of his 
oriental countenance, of the authenticity of his descent 
through hundreds of successive generations. You see him a 
living argument of the truth of the Bible. In him you be- 
hold the literal fulfilment of its prophecies. With him you 
ascend the stream of time, not voyaging by the dim, uncer- 
tain, and fallacious light of tradition, but guided by an ema- 
nation of the same light which to his nation was ' a pillar of 
cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night.' In him you see 
the representative of the once chosen and favoured people 
of God — to whom he revealed himself as legislator, protector, 
and king — who brought them out of the land of Egypt, and 
out of the house of bondage. You behold him established, as 
it were, forever, in the pleasant places allotted him. You trace 
him, by the peculiar mercy of his God, in his transition state 
from bondage to freedom, and, by the innate depravity of 
his human nature, from prosperity to insolence, ingratitude, 
and rebellion. Following him on, you find him the serf of 
'Eome. You trace him from the smouldering ashes of Jeru- 
salem, an outcast and a wanderer in all lands ; the persecu- 
tor of Christ, you find him the persecutor of Christians — 
bearing all things — suffering all things — strong in the pride 
of human knowledge — stiff-necked and gainsaying — hoping 
all things. ' For the Lord will have mercy upon Jacob, and 
will yet choose Israel and set them in their own lands, and 
the strangers shall be joined with them, and they shall cleave 
to the house of Jacob,' " 



256 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

There is no religious history of any people so peculiar and 
extraordinary. It informs us in regard to opinions and cer- 
emonies, events and transactions of a kind widely different 
from any others, and instructs mankind in a mode unknown 
to other narratives, because it brings directly into view the 
supernatural operations of God. Throughout the whole his- 
tory the divine design seems to be kept in view, in setting 
apart one family from the rest of the nations ; that is, to 
preserve the true religion in the world, and to prepare the 
way for the establishment of Christianity in after ages. The 
national faith, amid all its exposures and temporary suspen- 
sions, is identified with the history of the nation. To a Jew 
the State and Church were ever identical; his government 
was his religion, and his religion his government. 

The father of the Jewish nation was Abraham, or, as it 
was originally called, Abram. The place of his nativity was 
Ur, a district of Chaldea, now known as Orfa, in Mesopo- 
tamia, where the Mohammedans have erected a splendid 
mosque to his memory. His father's name was Terah, and 
his brethren JSTahor and Haran. The country was open, dry, 
and barren, and the inhabitants were idolaters. A change 
of location, so common to the nomadic tribes of the East, 
at length took place, and the family of Terah removed to 
Charrse, or Haran. They had not remained here long when 
the command of God came to Abraham to leave his country 
and kindred, for the purpose of establishing an independent 
tribe, in a distant, and, to him, unknown country. Abra- 
ham was now in his seventy-fifth year, and Lot, his nephew, 
chose to accompany him in his journey. Starting with his 
family, which consisted of several persons, with all their ser- 
vants and flocks, he travelled a distance of three hundred 
miles, taking the desert of Syria in his route, and finally 
settled in -Palestine, in the fertile valley of Sichem, between 
the mountains of Ebal and Gerizim. After this he removed 
to a mountain on the east of Bethel, and from thence jour- 
neyed south. When he first came to the country, " the Ca- 



BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 257 

naanite was in the land," and hence he knew that Canaan 
was the country to which he was called, and which had 
been promised as his inheritance, and that of his descend- 
ants. The Canaanites were descended from the son of Ham 
and his brethren, which were eleven in number. Trade and 
war was their chief occupation, and they nourished exceed- 
ingly in all their undertakings. They also engaged in manufac- 
tures, and became opulent. They settled colonies over almost 
all the islands and maritime provinces of the Mediterranean. 
Including the Phoenicians, they must be considered as among 
the more early civilized communities. Among them were 
different classes of merchants, artificers, soldiers, shepherds, 
and farmers. Their religion seems to have been that of their 
fathers, and they had kept it pure and uncontaminated to 
the days of Abraham. Melchizedek was one of their priests, 
and divinely accredited of God. The Phoenicians early de- 
voted themselves to learning. The sciences of arithmetic 
and astronomy were invented, or, at least, greatly improved 
by them, and it is a matter of certain history that they intro- 
duced letters into Greece. The arts and sciences of the Phoe- 
nicians were widely diffused among the Canaanites. The 
occurrence of a famine induced Abraham to remove into 
Egypt, one of the greatest corn countries of antiquity. We 
have already alluded to his visit to Egypt, and his hospitable 
reception there. Having, while there, acquired great pos- 
sessions, he returned again to Canaan, and re-occupied his 
former dwelling-place, between Bethel and Hai. The district 
of country he possessed, however, could not well support the 
large flocks owned by Abraham and Lot. This created a 
difficulty between the herdsmen of the two patriarchs, and, 
to settle it, they agreed to separate. Lot, going eastward 
into the rich and populous valley of the Jordan, settled in 
Sodom, and Abraham pitched his tents in the "plain of 
Mamre that was in Hebron." Near this time the first wars, 
the details of which are recorded in history, occurred. Sodom 
and all the adjacent country was ravaged and subdued by 



258 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

the arms of Chedorlaomer, king of Elam. Thirteen years 
before, this king, in confederacy with predatory tribes on the 
Euphrates and Tigris, attacked the princes of the valley, and, 
subduing them, subjected them to the payment of a tribute, 
which, on their refusal, involved them in a second war. Lot, 
with others, was taken captive. One who had escaped com- 
municated the intelligence to Abraham, who, taking with 
him three hundred and eighteen of his own servants, and 
some confederates, pursued the enemy to the sources of the 
Jordan, where, attacking them in the night, he vanquished 
them, and brought back Lot and the other captives in safety. 
He also recovered the booty which they had taken away. 
He was greeted, on his return, as a victorious leader. One 
extraordinary personage paid him peculiar honour. Mel- 
chizedek, the king of Salem, Jerusalem, who united in his 
person the offices of king and priest, and worshipped the 
one true God, brought forth bread and wine, and blessed the 
deliverer of his country. Prosperous in external circumstan- 
ces, still the pious patriarch had no heir. His anxiety on 
this subject, however, was relieved by an audible voice from 
heaven, which assured him not only of an immense progeny, 
but of a territory for their possession, extending from the 
Euphrates to the Mediterranean. By his maid-servant, Ha- 
gar, he had a child born to him, whom he named Ishmael. 
To this child he was strongly attached. About this time 
the rite of circumcision was instituted — a rite which was to 
distinguish the chosen seed. A short time subsequent to 
these transactions, Abraham was visited by angels, who tar- 
ried with him on their mission to destroy Sodom and the 
surrounding cities. After partaking of his hospitalities, and 
assuring him of- the birth of the promised seed, and promis- 
ing, upon his intercessions, if there were ten righteous persons 
in Sodom, to spare it, they journeyed on. But, alas, these 
licentious cities had fitted themselves for destruction. Their 
guilt was universal, and their ruin was inevitable. Lot, with 
his family, his wife excepted — being, by her dalliance, in- 



BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 259 

volved in the ruin — having made their escape, a fiery inun- 
dation swallowed them up. Present appearances of the 
valley covered by the Dead Sea, as well as the records of 
history, attest the nature of the judgment described in the 
Bible, All who visit this region unite in their testimony in 
regard to its peculiarities. These cities occupied the most 
fruitful and beautiful valley in the world. Inspiration com- 
pared it, in Lot's time, to the garden of Eden. It is a sad 
and melancholy fact, connected with the history of our race, 
that the most lovely and beautiful spots on our earth have 
been the most defiled by siu, and for this have been blasted 
of God forever. A dark and sullen sea of bitter waters, des- 
erts of desolation, interspersed with heaps of decaying ruins, 
all over the eastern world, mark localities which once smiled 
with beauty, and charmed the eye with their magnificence 
and grandeur. They are to us solemn warnings from the 
dead, speaking to us in tones of sadness from the grave of 
buried joys. 

Resuming our narrative, we come to a period in the his- 
tory of Abraham when he found it necessary to remove from 
the plains of Mamre to the country of the Philistines. Here, 
when he had attained the age of a hundred years, Isaac, the 
child of promise, was born. This event was hailed with 
every demonstration of joy. But life is a state of trial, and 
often clouds of gloom are permitted to cast their shadows 
over the brightest scenes. The free-born child occasioned 
jealousy to Hagar and her son ; for the former had scarcely 
attained his tenth year, when his mother, perceiving 
that Ishmael treated him with disrespect, resolved to part 
them forever. Sarah's request, enforced by the divine sanc- 
tion, induced the patriarch to send Hagar and her son away. 
Though the son of the bond- woman might have no part in 
the inheritance, yet, according to divine promise, Ishmael 
was to become the father of a great nation. And such, in 
fact, he became. The Arabians are a vast nation, and, like 
the Jews, have been kept separate and distinct from all others. 



260 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

It is said in Scripture that " Ishmael shall be a wild man ; 
his hand shall be against every man, and every man's hand 
against him;" and this has been literally fulfilled, to the 
present day, by his descendants, the Arabs. " God has sent 
them out free, loosed from all political restraint. The wil- 
derness is their habitation, and, in the parched land, where no 
other human beings could live, they have their habitation. 
They scorn the city, and, therefore, have no fixed dwellings. 
For their multitude they are not afraid, and, when they 
make depredations on cities, they retire with such precipi- 
tancy that all pursuit is eluded. In this respect, the crying 
of the driver is disregarded. They may be said to have no 
lands, their soil not being portioned out to them in fee-simple ; 
yet the range of the mountains is their pasture. They pitch 
their tents and feed their flocks where they please. They 
search after every green thing. Every kind of property they 
meet with is their prey." 

About twenty-five years after Hagar and her son were 
sent into the wilderness, the faith of Abraham, in being com- 
manded by the Almighty to take Isaac upon Mount Moriah 
and offer him up in sacrifice, was put to a severe test. Not- 
withstanding the alarming nature of the divine requirement, 
Abraham bowed in obedience, and, just as he was going to 
slay the youth, having bound him to the altar for that pur- 
pose, an angel stayed his hand, and he was directed to take 
a ram, caught in the thicket by his horns, and perfect the 
sacrifice. He named the place where his faith was so 
severely tried, Jehovah-Jireh — the Lord will provide. Soon 
after this Sarah died, and Abraham procured for her a place 
of interment in the territory of a neighbouring prince. The 
place of sepulture which he purchased was named Machpe- 
lah. As the Jews were to live alone, their burial-places 
were also to be kept separate and distinct from all others ; 
hence he refused the offers of the chiefs of the tribe of Heth 
to deposit her remains in the national cemetery. Not long 
subsequent to the death of his mother, Isaac was married to 



BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 261 

Rebekah, of his own kindred. The descendants of Abraham, 
by his second marriage, were settled in Arabia, apart from 
the inheritance of Isaac, where it is supposed traces of them 
are to be found at the present day. Nothing more is recorded 
of this distinguished patriarch, except that at the age of one 
hundred and seventy-five he died, and was buried in Mach- 
pelah. No personage of antiquity is more renowned than 
Abraham. The Arabs boast their descent from " the father 
of the faithful" — the "friend of God," and he is equally 
venerated by Jew, Christian, and Mohammedan. He was 
selected from that nomadic race which stretches from the 
north-eastern extremity of Asia to the north-western shores 
of Africa. His simple, unadulterated mind, had become 
impregnated with the central truth, the one idea of the 
existence of one God, and he became the proper witness of 
it to the chief nations of the earth, with which he was 
respectively brought into contact, especially if Ur was, as 
some maintain, on the borders of Northern India. He was 
in fact a princely missionary from country to country, be- 
tween nation and nation. In the year of the world 2167 
two sons were born to Isaac, Esau and Jacob. In temper 
and disposition they w^re opposite. Esau was fierce, rest- 
less, and sensual ; Jacob was gentle, cautious, quiet, and 
calculating. The red-haired, rough Esau, was occupied and 
delighted in rude scenes and exercises. The smooth Jacob 
sought the pastoral occupation, and cherished the peaceful, 
practical thoughts which it inspired, and was, of course, far 
better fitted to become the father of a united, settled people, 
than his brother. Their natures indicated their destinies. 
Esau became the father of the Edomites, or Idumeans, and, 
though they reached a higher civilization and were farther 
removed from barbarism than the Bedouins, who sprung 
from Ishmael, yet in their scattered condition and continual 
wars, either among themselves or with others, they could not 
but be regarded as antagonistic to the purposes, that were 
sought in the isolation of the Abrahamic race. According 



262 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

to the declarations of the Bible, they were to live as their 
father, by the sword and the bow. 

Jacob was destined to inherit the blessing or privileges of 
the first-born. After a day of unsuccessful hunting, and 
consequent hunger and exhaustion, Esau sold his right of 
primogeniture to his brother for a mess of herbs. In addi- 
tion to this, Jacob obtained, through the counsel of his mother, 
by craft, the solemn blessing of his father, confirming the 
right of primogeniture, in the following words : " Be thou 
lord over thy brethren, and let thy mother's sons bow down 
before thee." 

This act aroused all the vindictiveness of Esau, and he 
determined on having revenge. Fearing his wrath, Jacob 
fled to Mesopotamia, where he subsequently married two 
wives, .for whom and his cattle he served twenty years. 
Taking his family and servants, he set out on his return to 
the land of his nativity. When he arrived at the neighbor- 
hood of Seir, he learned, by his messenger, that Esau, being 
apprised of his approach, set out with four hundred men 
to meet him as an enemy. Finding himself involved in the 
greatest danger, he made all the arrangements that pru- 
dence would dictate, and betook himself to prayer. During 
the night, while engaged in supplication, the Scriptures 
inform us he wrestled with an angel, and at day-light pre- 
vailed, receiving an assurance of victory over his brother. 
It was not to be achieved by might or power, but by the 
Spirit of the Lord, which holds and guides the hearts of all 
men. Consequently, Esau met his brother with every token 
of kindness and affection, and, after many solicitations, 
accepted the gifts presented by Jacob. The brothers sepa- 
rated in peace, and Jacob took up his residence in Shechem, 
a short distance west of his former position, and nearly cen- 
tral in Palestine. A melancholy event happening to his 
only daughter, and avenged by her brothers, induced him to 
leave this part of the country. He tarried awhile at Luz, 
where he raised an altar, and called the place El-Bethel. 



BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 263 

From Bethel lie proceeded to Ephrath, and, having survived 
Rachel and erected a monument to her memory, he sought 
a new settlement beyond the tower of Edar, supposed to 
have been near Jerusalem. Family affliction again induced 
him to move his residence to Hebron, where Isaac, his 
father, who was still alive, resided. Soon after this, however, 
Isaac, having attained the age of one hundred and eighty 
years, died, and both Esau and Jacob paid filial respect 
to his venerable remains. From this period an entire sepa- 
ration in the family of Isaac ensued ; Jacob remained in 
Canaan, and Esau took his possessions in Mount Seir or 
Arabia Petraea. Ten years after the death of Isaac, circum- 
stances which we have already detailed caused the migration 
of Jacob and his family into Egypt, where they parsed 
through various fortunes, during a period of four hundred 
years, and were finally led out into the wilderness of Arabia 
by the hand of Moses, and, after wandering forty years, they 
entered Canaan — the land promised to their fathers. Canaan 
and the adjacent country, as we have already intimated, was 
inhabited by many powerful native tribes, and it is impor- 
tant to our purpose to give a brief description of them. In 
the south part of Syria the earliest inhabitants known seem 
to have been a race of giants, or a people of large stature, 
which distinguished them from the Canaanites. The Avites 
in the south-west were partly exterminated and partly driven 
south, by the Philistines, a colony from Crete. The Horites, 
" cave-dwellers" or Troglodytes, seem to have been invaded 
by and to have mingled with the Canaanites. They inhab- 
ited Mount Seir also, whence they were exterminated by the 
Edomites. 

The Rephaim were a very ancient people of East Canaan, 
tall of stature, divided into several families, and having many 
cities which were in the sequel destroyed, founded anew or 
occupied by the later Canaanites. Connected with them 
were the Emims, or Terribles, so called by the Moabites, and 
a wealthy people, of high stature, whose territory was after- 



264 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

wards called the land of Moab. The Zamzummim also, as 
the Ammonites called them, were a rich people, of extraordi- 
nary stature. Their territory was called the land of Rephaim, 
and, after their extirpation, the land of the Ammonites. A 
plain and valley contiguous to Jerusalem on the south-west 
bore the name of these giants. The Rephaim of the king- 
dom of Bashan, called the land of Rephaim ; probably the 
only remnants of this people were exterminated by Moses. 
The Anakim, that is, giants, were a mountain race, very 
formidable to the Israelites. Like the Rephaim, they were 
divided into several families, as the Nephili'm about Hebron, 
of whom were probably Arba, Ahiman, Sheshai, and Talmai ; 
the Anakim of the mountains, not only of Hebron, but of 
Debir, Anah, and most of the mountains of Judah and 
Israel, both in the north and south of Canaan, these were 
all destroyed by Joshua. The Anakim of Gaza, and Ashdod, 
and Gath, were alone left. Of the last-named was Goliath. 
The Kenites dwelt in the land in Abraham's time, and were 
probably driven southward by the Canaanites and settled 
among the Midianites, as Hobab is said to have been their 
father. In the time of Moses they resided in the mountains 
near Moab and Amalek. Saul, when about to invade Ama- 
lek, warns the Kenites to depart from among them, lest they 
be destroyed with them. The Kenizzites are thought to 
have dwelt in Edom. The Kadmonites, that is, " Easterns" 
or "Orientals," resided about Mount Hermon, and were 
probably Hivites. The Perizzites, that is, " dwellers in the 
plain," were between Bethel and Ai, and about Shechem 
also, in the lot of Ephraim and Manasseh, and in South 
Judah. 



BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 265 

CHAPTER V. 

THE CANAANITES AND NEIGHBOURING NATIONS. 

The Canaanites were descended from the eleven sons of 
Canaan, the son of Ham. The descendants of five of these 
sons, named respectively Sidon, Arki, Arvadi, Hamathi, and 
Sini, settled in Syria and Phoenicia, and their history will 
be given with that of the Syrians and Phoenicians. The 
descendants of the other six sons of Canaan, namely, Heth, 
Jebusi, Amori, Gergashi, Zemari, and Hivi, settled in Canaan 
proper. We shall now endeavour to give an account of 
these Canaanites proper. 

The children of Heth, or Hittites, dwelt among the Amo- 
rites, in the mountains of Judah : they possessed Hebron in 
Abraham's time, and he bought of them Machpelah, which 
was made the family tomb of the patriarchs. It is still 
shown, beneath the mosque of Abraham at Hebron. Esau 
married two Hittites, while his father resided at Beersheba. 
Sculptures on Egyptian monuments show that in patriarchal 
times they were waging a continual war with the Egyp- 
tians. Uriah, the Hittite, was one of David's officers. 
Solomon was the first to render them tributary, and Hittites 
were found in his harem. The last we hear of them is on 
the return of the Jews from their captivity in Babylon, 
where they are mentioned as one of the heathen tribes 
from which the Jews unlawfully took wives. 

The Jebusites dwelt in the city and mountains of Jeru- 
salem, and, after David took the place, they remained there 
still under his laws. He purchased the temple area on 
Mount Moriah of a Jebusite. Egyptian monuments show 
that this people, also, warred with the Egyptians. 

The Amorites are found in Abraham's time about Engedi, 
a fertile spot, with a tropical climate, lying on the western 
coast of the Dead Sea, improved afterwards by Solomon as 

12 



266 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

a botanic garden. Spreading thence over the mountainous 
country which forms the south part of Canaan, they gave 
their name to it. Jacob speaks of a piece of ground he 
obtained from them by force of arms, as far north as Shechem. 
Before the time of Moses they had founded two kingdoms, 
Bashan on the north and another south to Arnon, driving 
out the Ammonites and Moabites from between that river 
and the Jabbok. This latter territory Israel took from the 
Amorite king, Sihon. 

The Gergashites dwelt between the Canaanites and Jeb- 
usites, and a region east of the sea of Galilee is called the 
" country of the Gergesenes" This is the only tribe we miss 
in subsequent history except the Zemarites, who are men- 
tioned but once, though a city Zemaraim is spoken of in 
Joshua. 

The Hivites were in the northern part of the land, at the 
foot of Anti-Lebanon or Hermon, in the land of Mizpeh. 
Some yet remained in David's time, and they, with the Amo- 
rites, Perizzites, Hittites, and Jebusites, were taxed for bond 
service by Solomon. The Gibeonites and Sbechemites were 
of this race. 

The Amalehites sprang from Esau's grandson,, a duke of 
Edom : there seems, however, to have been a mutual aver- 
sion between the Edomites and Amalekites. They occupied 
the country from South Canaan to the very angle of the 
Sinaitic peninsula. They attacked the rear of the Israelites, 
on their march from Rephidim to Horeb, but were put to 
flight after a hard-fought battle. In conjunction with the 
Canaanites, they repulsed the Israelites from the southern 
slope of Judea. They also allied themselves with the "king 
of Moab, Eglon, and the Ammonites, and afterwards with 
the Midianites under Zeba and Zalmunna, to root out the 
Israelites, but by a stratagem of Gideon were made to destroy 
each other. Nothing more is heard of them until the time 
of Saul. The sentence of extermination pronounced on them 
by Joshua, when their deadly hostility to Israel first mani- 



BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 267 

fested itself, was partially executed by Saul, more completely 
by David, and finally consummated by the Simeonites, in 
the reign of Hezekiah. Saul invaded them with an immense 
army, and all that could be taken, men, women, and children, 
were put to death. Their king, Agag, a very graceful person, 
of noble bearing and address, was spared on that account ; 
but Samuel afterwards, in obedience to the divine command, 
hewed him in pieces. 

Lot's posterity, the Moabites and Ammonites, destroying 
the gigantic Emims, spread themselves to the eastward of 
the Dead Sea, which still bears the name among the Arabs 
of Lot's Sea. The country of the Moabites — forty miles 
square — was bounded south by the brook Zered, Midian, and 
Edom ; east by the Arabian Desert ; north by the Ammon- 
ites ; and west by the Dead Sea and Jordan. The Israelites 
were forbidden to disturb them, notwithstanding great pro- 
vocations. When the Israelites under Moses had subdued 
Sihon, they pitched their camp in that part of their new 
possessions called the plains of Moab. The king of Moab, 
dismayed at their presence and unable to resist them, assem- 
bled the most eminent men of his nation, and also the 
sheikhs of the Midianites, and, on consultation with them, 
it was thought best to send for Balaam, a distinguished 
prophet, to curse Israel. Balaam, after receiving two mes- 
sages and a liberal promise of reward, undertook to curse 
them, but was forbidden by the Lord. He however gave 
them advice of the most wicked character, which proved 
infinitely worse than any verbal curse. His advice was, that 
the Israelites should be seduced to heathenism by the charms 
of Moabitish and Midianitish women. The very chief men 
of the nation did not hesitate to send their daughters on 
this infamous errand. The scheme succeeded but too well ; 
the enamoured Israelites found the blandishments of the 
beautiful idolatresses more formidable than the mightiest 
engines of war. Their debaucheries infected them with a 
deadly • disease, which earned off twenty-four thousand, 



268 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

besides those whom Moses ordered to be put to death. The 
Moabites became subject to David and Solomon, and 
remained so until the revolt of the ten tribes. The kings 
of Judah, Israel, and Edom, leaguing together, defeated the 
Moabites, demolished their cities, except Kir-haraseth, in 
which the king of Moab shut himself up ; after several 
other unsuccessful wars, passing through a variety of fortunes 
until Nebuchadnezzar's time, when they partook of the fate 
of the other people of Syria. In the time of Josephus 
they were a populous nation ; but in the third century they 
lost their name, and became included under the general 
designation of Arabians. 

The Ammonites — descendants of Lot — destroyed the gi- 
gantic Zamzummim, and occupied their territory, which fell 
into the possession of Moses, who divided it to Gad and 
Reuben. It is described by travellers as a charming country 
of hills, groves, valleys, and streams, presenting lovely images 
of pastoral beauty, and the Arab proverb extols it as incom- 
parable. 

Ammon joined Moab, under Eglon, in opposing Israel, as 
already alluded to. About two hundred years later, we find 
them as principals in a war against the Israelites, under an 
unknown leader. This prince attempted to recover the an- 
cient country of the Ammonites, which had passed through 
the hands of the Amorites to Israel. He invaded this land, 
and held it in subjection many years. Encouraged by suc- 
cess, he crossed the Jordan, and pillaged Judah, Benjamin, 
and Ephraim. Returning, he aimed to make a complete 
conquest of the whole country, at the same time. Jephthah 
attacked him, near Aroer, and defeated him with great 
slaughter, which put an end to Ammonitish tyranny. The 
next of the kings of the Ammonites was Nahash, who lived 
in Saul's time. He revived the old claim, and fought with 
great success. At last he besieged Jabesh Gilead, and it 
was just at the point of falling into his hands, on the condi- 
tion that each of its inhabitants should lose an eye, when 



BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 269 

Saul made an assault upon the camp, and a terrible battle 
ensued, in which they were completely routed, so that no 
two of them could be seen together. About sixty years after, 
they treated David's messengers with the most shameful in- 
dignity, which brought on a war. Their king, Hanun, allied 
himself with a vast host of Syrians, Moabites, and Ammon- 
ites, but was defeated by Joab, and again by David, in per- 
son. Joab laid siege to Rabbah, their capital, and David 
took it by storm, wreaking terrible vengeance. About one 
hundred and forty years after, they allied themselves again 
with Moab, and invaded Judah ; but the allied armies quar- 
relled, and destroyed each other. Uzziah defeated them and 
made them tributary, but they rebelled against his son Jo- 
tham. Again defeated, they were compelled to pay one 
hundred talents of silver, ten thousand measures of wheat, 
and as many of barley — that is, one hundred and sixty 
thousand bushels — for three successive years. When Reuben 
and Gad were carried away captive, the Ammonites occupied 
their empty cities. 

In Zedekiah's attempt to throw off the yoke of Nebuchad- 
nezzar, Baalis, the last king of Ammon, seems, to have 
joined him ; but when Jerusalem was destroyed, the Am- 
monites exulted over its ruin. Baalis advised Ishmael to 
assassinate Gedaliah, appointed by the king of Babylon to 
govern the poor remnant of Jews. A long time after, we 
find them united with the Arabians, Moabites, and Samari- 
tans, in attempting to prevent the rebuilding of the city of 
Jerusalem. Probably Cyrus had restored them, as we find 
them, even previous to this, subject to Egypt, and then to 
Syria. Under the leadership of Timotheus, their governor, 
they fought with Judas Maccabeus, who at last burnt their 
city, murdered its inhabitants, and extinguished them as a 
nation. Their name was finally merged in the general ap- 
pellation of Arabs. 

The Midianites dwelt south and east of Edom. Moses 
found them about Sinai, and one of their chief cities, Midian, 



270 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

was in the north, towards Rabbath-Moab, and another of 
the same name, in the south, by the Red Sea, on the eastern 
shore of the Gulf of Akaba. They are thought to have 
sprung from Abraham's fourth son. We find them early 
confounded with the Ishmaelites ; later with the Nabatheans ; 
and, in the time of Moses, the Midianites and Moabites ap- 
pear to have been almost one people, alike in religion and 
interests. This numerous people were early known as rovers, 
divided into two classes, the shepherds and the merchants ; 
the latter, as early as the time of Joseph, were engaged in 
the trade from Gilead to Egypt. The merchants moved in 
caravans, and carried on a trade between the Mediterranean, 
India, Assyria, and Egypt. They left the care of their cattle 
to women, and hence Jethro's daughters were found tending 
the flocks of their father. Jethro, the "prince-priest," a 
Kenite, lived in the city of Midian. His seven daughters were 
insulted by shepherds, and Moses defended them. For this 
vindication he was admitted to the hospitalities of their father's 
house, and subsequently became the husband of Zipporah. 

From this period the Midianites are lost to history for a 
half century. They had grown rich in trade, which con- 
sisted mostly of costly jewelry. They were early familiar 
with letters. Traces of the worship of the crescent planet 
Venus, or the crescent moon, are found among them, indi- 
cating their attachment to Islamism. The Midianites had no 
reason to exult over the success of Baalam's wicked advice, 
in which they heartily cooperated; for Moses sent twelve 
thousand men against them, under Phineas, and, notwith- 
standing their stout resistance, they were defeated and put 
to the sword, including the wicked prophet; and all their 
towns and castles were burnt. Every person was destroyed, 
except thirty-two thousand virgins, who were made prisoners. 
The whole country was laid waste, and the cattle driven off, 
amounting to the number of two hundred and eight thousand, 
of different kinds ; besides, the spoil of gold, silver, and iron, 
was immense. 



BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 2*71 

A century and a half later, by the stratagem of Gideon, 
with the trumpet and lamps at midnight, one hundred and 
twenty thousand were slain in this battle and one subsequent ; 
so that doomsday had come to Midian. Many ages after, 
the tribe was distinguished for its wealth and the magnifi- 
cence of its tents ; but, in the course of time, its distinctive 
name shared the fate of its contemporaries, and was merged 
in that of the Arabs. 

The most vigorous, highly civilized, and respectable of 
all these nations remains yet to be noticed. The Philistines 
were only inferior in attainments to the Phoenicians and 
Egyptians. The Philistines were Misraimites, supposed to 
have migrated from India. They drove out the Avites, and 
settled upon the southern half of one of the most fertile 
and beautiful plains in the world. It is bounded on the 
north by Carmel, south by the desert, west by the Mediter- 
ranean, and east by the mountains of Judah. This energetic 
race was under five lordships, each with its head city, namely, 
Gaza, Askelon, Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron. They were not 
destined to extermination, but Joshua attacked them. Until 
David's time they had their kings, and some of them oppressed 
Israel for many years. 

David subdued them, as also Jehoram and Uzziah ; but, in 
the reign of Ahaz, they annoyed Judah. They were again 
subdued, but they became free. They were partially conquered 
by Esarhaddon and Psammeticus ; afterwards by the Persians 
and by Alexander, who destroyed Gaza. After this they fell 
under the Asmonean government, which is the last we hear of 
them in history. Two of their towns sustained famous sieges. 
Ashdod, afterwards called Azotus, withstood the whole force 
of Egypt, under Psammeticus, for the space of twenty-nine 
years. This is the longest siege recorded in history. 

Then* country having become the theatre of war between 
the mighty nations of Assyria and Egypt, they finally lost 
their independence, and became tributary to the succeeding 
empires. From the hieroglyphics upon the contemporary 



2*72 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

monuments of Egypt, we learn that their personal appearance 
resembled the Egyptians, except that they were whiter, and 
shaved both beard and whiskers, and differed in arms and 
equipments from all other nations east of Egypt. 

We now return to the journey ings of the Israelites, who 
were on their way to the occupancy of the country inhabited 
by the nations we have described. During their forty years' 
wanderings they passed through many remarkable scenes. 
The giving of the law on Sinai — constant miraculous sup- 
plies — the death of Moses — the passage of the Jordan — the 
destruction of Jericho — the capture and occupancy of Ca- 
naan — all were marked by the most signal interposition of 
divine power in their behalf, and should have forever im- 
pressed them with a sense of grateful dependence, and 
prompted them to the most cheerful obedience. 

After the termination of the wars in Canaan the Israelites 
proceeded to attend to the instructions given to them by 
Moses, which were the solemn recognition of the Lord as 
king, and swearing allegiance to the constitution. They 
next proceeded to the survey and partition of the land, with 
the location of the several tribes. 

Joshua, after having gathered together all the people, ex- 
horted them to obedience, and renewing the oath of fealty 
and allegiance, died, aged one hundred and ten years, B. C. 
1426. After his decease, and that of the elders, there suc- 
ceeded a generation of men who disregarded the pious cus- 
toms of their fathers, and mingled with the Canaanites in 
marriages and idolatrous worship. During the period of 
the judges, personal activity, courage, and craft were quali- 
ties which gave distinction ; and hence this was called the 
heroic age, contrasting with the Homeric and Grecian con- 
temporaries. Samson is compared with Hercules ; Shamgar 
with Achilles ; Jephthah with Agamemnon ; Saul with Hec- 
tor, &c, &c. Also the domestic life of the Homeric age, as 
described by Homer, was contrasted with the pleasant pic- 
ture of Hebrew rural life given in the Book of Ruth. 



BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 273 

Voltaire says : " These times and manners have nothing in 
common with our own, whether good or bad ; their spirit is 
not ours ; their good sense is not ours." On this very ac- 
count, the five books of Moses, Joshua, and the Judges, are 
a thousand times more instructive than Homer and Herod- 
otus. 

During this period, the nation was involved in numerous 
wars, and exhibited scenes of capture and deliverances. Be- 
coming tired of the theocratic form of government, the people 
desired a monarchy, and, accordingly, Samuel, the prophet, 
anointed Saul as king over Israel. 

This kingdom, under the successive reigns of David and 
Solomon, became rich and powerful, and extended its terri- 
tory from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean, and from 
Phoenicia to Edom. 

Solomon, the wisest of kings, erected a most magnificent 
temple for the worship of God. He also erected sumptuous 
palaces in and around Jerusalem, and, during his reign, the 
kingdom embraced the largest extent of territory it ever did, 
extending from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf, and 
from the borders of Tyre and Sidon to the Elanitic Gulf of 
the Red Sea. The population of the empire was estimated 
at eight millions. Commerce and the arts of life were pro- 
moted, and literature and science more highly cultivated than 
at any former period. 

During the reign of JRehoboam, the successor of Solomon, 
ten of the twelve tribes rebelled against the government, 
which was regarded by the people as tyrannical. These 
tribes renounced their allegiance, and made Jeroboam their 
king. The separate kingdoms of Judah and Israel were 
soon embroiled in wars, which proved disastrous to both. The 
kingdom of Israel fell into the most grievous idolatry, from 
which, however, it was restored in the days of the prophet 
Elijah, and the ancient religion revered. 'Under the reign 
of Ahaziah, the kingdoms were joined in a confederacy, 
which lasted two years. After several successive reigns of 

12* 



274 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

various fortunes, the kingdom at last fell into anarchy, and, 
being besieged by the king of Assyria, its independence was 
destroyed, and the ten tribes were scattered abroad, none 
knows whither. 

The contemporaneous history of Judah is involved, more or 
less, with that of Israel. Her kings were, many of them, 
devoted to the religion and institutions of the country. A 
few of them, however, imitated the profligate kings of Israel ; 
but a reign of misrule and irreligion was almost invariably 
succeeded by a return to order and the national faith. 

The Jewish kingdom, in the year 610 B. C, was subdued 
by Nebuchadnezzar, and the temple was plundered, and the 
people were carried as captives to Babylon. This captivity 
lasted seventy years, after which they were permitted by 
Cyrus, king of Persia, to return and rebuild their temple, 
which had been destroyed. The king of Persia sent Ezra, 
the priest and scribe, to officiate as governor, and appoint 
superior and inferior judges, rectify abuses, enforce the ob- 
servance of the laws, and various means were allowed him 
for the use of the temple. He read the books of the law to 
the assembled people, and collected all the manuscripts of 
the prophets and sacred writers, and placed them in their 
present form. JSTehemiah was sent as governor in 444 B. C, 
and under his direction the walls of the city were built. 

One hundred years afterwards, the country was invaded 
by Alexander, and he removed one hundred thousand of the 
Jews to Egypt. Subsequently, Ptolemy, king of Egypt, at- 
tacked Jerusalem on the Sabbath-day, and, meeting with no 
resistance, in consequence of the regard of the Jews for the 
Sabbath, it was taken. It was twice wrested from his hands 
by Antigonus. Ptolemy, however, had it made part of his 
share as one of the successors of Alexander. He carried 
away one hundred thousand captives, whom he settled chiefly 
in Alexandria and Cyrene. Under the first three Ptolemies, 
the Alexandrine and native Jews enjoyed many marks of 
royal favour. 



BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 2*75 

Antiochus Epiphanes, the king of Syria, in the year 176 
B. C, marched against Jerusalem, sacked and pillaged the 
temple, destroyed forty thousand of the inhabitants, and 
seized as many more, to be sold as slaves. These outrages 
were followed by attempts to abolish the worship of God, 
and force the Jews to forsake their religion. The Samari- 
tans disowned their relation to the Jews, to whom, in pros- 
perity, they pretended alliance, and they consecrated their 
temple on Mount Gerizim to Jupiter. In the midst of the 
most fierce and bitter persecutions, to induce the Jews to re- 
nounce their religion, they were firm. 

Mattathias resisted the officer of Antiochus, who came to 
execute the edict against the Jewish religion, in the place of 
the priests' residence. He was supported in this by his five 
sons, who fell upon the king's commissioner and put him to 
death. Mattathias then summoned all the citizens who 
were zealous for the law, to follow him to the mountains. 
One thousand of them perished in their caves, as they would 
not defend themselves on the Sabbath, when attacked by 
the Syrians. After this, Mattathias and his followers dis- 
carded that view of the Sabbath. After the death of Matta- 
thias, Judas Maccabeus, one of his sons, assumed the leader- 
ship in the glorious enterprise. Apollonius, the governor 
of Samaria, who came against him, was slain, and his army 
totally defeated. Seron, governor of Lower Syria, advanced 
to avenge the defeat of Apollonius, but met a similar fate, 
and lost eight hundred men. The next year Antiochus sent 
an army of forty-seven thousand men against him, but he 
defeated them with an immense slaughter. Then followed 
Lysias, with a still larger force ; but he was overcome by Judas, 
and lost five thousand men. The Maccabean then trium- 
phantly entered Jerusalem, purified the temple, and placed 
a wall around Mount Zion. From thence, he carried his 
victorious arms into the territories of the Idumeans and the 
Ammonites, and enlarged his boundaries. 

In the meantime Antiochus died in Persia, and was sue- 



2V6 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

ceeded by his son Antiochus Eupator, 162 B. C. He made 
peace with the Jews, but soon violated it by putting Mene- 
laiis, the high-priest, to death, and conferring the priesthood 
on Alcimus. In the meantime Demetrius Soter, lineal heir 
to the throne of Antioch, had escaped from Home and came 
to Syria, where he caused himself to be crowned king, and, 
after some struggle, overpowered Lysias and Antiochus, and 
put them to death. 

At the instance of Alcimus, the high-priest Demetrius sent 
Nicanor, with a great army, against Judas ; but his army 
was routed, and he was slain. After this, to secure the in- 
dependence of the country, Judas entered into a formal treaty 
of alliance with Rome; but, before its consummation, the 
heroic Maccabean had terminated his brilliant career. De- 
metrius sent Alcimus and Bacchides, with a new army of 
twenty thousand men, against him. Judas was abandoned 
by all his troops, except eight hundred, yet he would not be 
prevailed upon to retreat. He fell, nobly fighting to the last, 
161 B. C. 

His brother Jonathan was chosen general in his stead. 
He consummated the alliance with Rome, and obliged Bac- 
chides to make a league, and withdraw his army from Judea. 

Alexander Balas, who announced himself as the son of Anti- 
ochus Epiphanes, came with an army into Syria ; the garrison 
of Ptolemais opened their gates to him, on account of their 
hatred to Demetrius, and the latter prepared himself for war. 
Alexander courted an alliance with the Jewish general, and 
conferred on Jonathan the high-priesthood, who immediately 
assumed the pontifical robes, and, in his person, commenced 
the reign of the Asmonean princes, 152 B. C. 

Demetrius and Alexander, having come to a battle, the 
former was defeated and slain. His eldest son, Demetrius 
ISTicanor, entered Cilicia with an army, 148 B. C. Apollo- 
nius, his general, receiving the command of Syria, attacked 
Jonathan, the high-priest, who overcame him, took Joppa 
and Azotus, and burnt the temple of Dagon. 



BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 277 

In the year 144 B. C, Tryphon took Jonathan by strata- 
gem, and subsequently put him to death. His brother Si- 
mon was chosen in his stead. The Eomans renewed their 
leagues with Simon, and wrote them in tables of brass. 
Soon after this, Simon intrusted the command to his sons, 
Judas and John Hyrcanus. In 107 B. C, Aristobulus, the 
eldest son of Hyrcanus, succeeded his father. He was the 
first, after the captivity, who set a crown upon his head, and 
changed the State into a monarchy. 

There were several successors of the Asmonean race in the 
kingdom, — Alexander, Jannseus, Alexandra, Aristobulus II., 
Hyrcanus II., and Antigonus, — whose rule, including that of 
the founder of the dynasty, continued about one hundred 
and twenty-six years. In the year 63 B. C, Pompey came to 
Jerusalem to settle the affairs of Judea. He restored Hyrca- 
nus, between whom and his brother, Aristobulus, there had 
been a contest for the crown, with the title of " Prince of 
the Jews," and conferred the government of the country on 
Antipater, an Idumean proselyte. He made the Jews tribu- 
tary to the Eomans. 

Herod, afterwards named the Great, was a younger son 
of Antipater, the Idumean. His father had appointed him 
to the government of Galilee, in the year 47 B. C. In the 
year 38 B. C, he took Jerusalem, married the beautiful Ma- 
riame, the daughter of Hyrcanus, of the Asmonean family, 
and was made king of Judea by the Koman power. He 
was the last independent sovereign of Palestine, and began 
his reign 37 B. C. His reign was one of unmitigated cru- 
elty. The last year of his life he ordered the murder of the 
children of Bethlehem, for the purpose of securing the death 
of Christ, who was born at that time ; and the last act of his life 
was the execution of his own son, Antipater. He had married 
ten wives, and his family was numerous. To his two sons by 
Malthace, a Samaritan, Herod Antipas and Archelaus, he 
divided his dominions. Antipas had Galilee and Perea ; and 
Archelaus, Idumea, Samaria, and Judea. The Roman gov- 



2*78 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

ernment gave Philip a share in the government of Judea. 
Archelaiis received only the title of Ethnarch, and, under 
this name, he assumed the government of Judea, three years 
before Christ. After a reign of nine years of great cruelty, 
he was deposed and banished by the Eoman emperor, and 
Judea was reduced to a Roman province, 

Augustus, the emperor of Kome, appointed a number of 
successors to the government of Judea, none of whom re- 
mained in office for any length of time. Tiberius adopted 
a different policy, and, during his reign of twenty-three years, 
Judea had only two rulers — Valerius Gratus, A. D. 16 ; and 
Pontius Pilate, A. D. 29. It was before Pontius Pilate that 
Jesus Christ was led by the Jews. After having declared 
him innocent, he, nevertheless, sentenced him to* crucifixion, 
A. D. 33. 

During this period, the other two sons of Herod reigned 
in peace — Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee ; and Philip in 
Perea. After the death of Philip, his territory was annexed 
to the province of Syria, and subsequently his vacant 
tetrarchate was given by Caligula to Agrippa, the son of 
Aristobulus, who also received the title of king. On the 
accession of Claudius his territories were enlarged. He 
endeavoured to gain the favour of the Jews by observing the 
Mosaic law with great exactness. In this spirit he also 
commenced the persecution of the Christians. He put to 
death James, and threw Peter in prison. Having reigned 
over the whole of Palestine for three years, he died in 
extreme agony at Cesarea Palestina, A. D. 44. 

He * left one son, who succeeded his father, but was too 
young to bear the burdens of royalty, and Judea relapsed 
into a Roman province. Cassius Longinus was appointed to 
the presidency of Syria, and Fadus was sent as governor of 
Judea. Tiberius Alexander succeeded Fadus, but his gov- 
ernment was short and eventful. He in turn was followed 
by Yentidius Cumanus, and the latter by Claudius Felix, 
who was born a slave and addicted to all manner of crimes. 



BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 279 

Porcius Festus next was appointed governor. His admin- 
istration was rigid, but upright. He was succeeded by 
Albinus, and lie in turn by Gessius Florus, in whose time 
the most fearful calamities befell the Jews. Difficulties arose 
in Cesarea among the Jews and the Greek magistrates. 
The spirit of insubordination extended to Jerusalem ; and 
Florus, for the purpose of suppressing an insurrection, to 
which he had driven the people, had thirty-six hundred men, 
women, and children, butchered in the streets. He also had 
twenty thousand Jews slain in Cesarea. The Jews were 
driven to madness, and went out through the land destroying 
city after city, and being in turn themselves destroyed by 
the Romans. The Jews offered such a deadly resistance to 
Roman power that Nero selected his most valiant military 
commander, Vespasian, to conduct the war. Vespasian sent 
his son Titus to Alexandria, to conduct the fifth and tenth 
legions, while he himself travelled with all speed by land to 
Syria, gathering armed forces in his train. Vespasian 
desolated every city he visited, and continued his war of 
extermination until he received intelligence that he was 
elected emperor, when he repaired to Rome, and his son 
Titus became commander-in-chief. Titus determined on 
taking the city of Jerusalem, and marched his army up to 
its walls. After a desperate and long-continued effort, in 
which thousands died from starvation within the walls and 
tens of thousands in defending the city, an entrance was 
made, and a scene of slaughter and destruction ensued which 
beggars all description. The whole city was laid waste ; 
temple, palace, tower, all alike fell beneath the stroke of the 
ruthless invader. During the wars of Vespasian and Titus, 
it is computed that one million five hundred thousand 
were slain, including one hundred thousand who perished in 
gladiatorial fights and by wild beasts in the amphitheatre at 
Rome. Josephus, King Agrippa, and his sister Berenice, 
escaped the general wreck of the country, and, while Jose- 
phus became a favourite and wrote his histories in Rome, 



280 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

vouched for by Titus, Berenice would have been taken to 
the throne by Titus, who became enamoured of her beauty, 
but for the prejudices of his subjects — she being an Idumean. 
The political existence of the Jewish nation was now at 
an end, and from that time to the present they have been 
scattered and oppressed among the nations of the earth. 
Here Biblical Ethnography closes in regard to this nation, 
and their subsequent history belongs to another department. 



fart Stimrtt 

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 



History in general is an authentic narrative of facts and 
events in the order in which they occured. Biblical His- 
tory is a narration of the facts and events of the Bible, 
and differs widely from a history of the Bible. These are 
often confounded by Bible historians, when they should be 
kept entirely separate and distinct. 

Bible history, according to the above definition, is simply 
a narrative of the contents of the Bible ; whereas a history 
of the Bible is confined as specifically to an account of its 
origin, structure, and character, together with the times in 
which and the authors by whom it was written, as well as 
the languages in which they wrote. It also embraces an 
account of the manuscripts, their transcription and preserva- 
tion, and the various translations which have been made 
from time to time, and the extent of their circulation. This 
department gives the historian the widest field of observa- 
tion, inasmuch as it pertains to everything connected with 
the origin, progress, and fate of the Scriptures. 

Biblical history confines the writer to the simple text. It 
is only with the contents of the books of the Old and New 
Testaments that he has to do ; and hence the design of this 
part will be to give a succinct analysis of the subjects 
embraced in each particular book of the four divisions of the 
Old, namely, the Pentateuch, the Historical, Poetical, and 
Prophetical ; and the three of the New Testament, namely, 
the Historical, Doctrinal, and Epistolary. 



282 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

CHAPTER I. 
HISTORICAL BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 

Genesis. 

A. M. The first book of the Pentateuch, which is called 
1 ... . 
- — Genesis, derives its appellation from the title it 

bears in the Greek Septuagint version, BIBA02 TENE- 

2E£22, (Biblos Geneseos,) which signifies the Book of the 

Generation or Production, because it commences with the 

history of the generation or production of all things. 

Different opinions have been entertained in regard to the 
time when Moses, its author, wrote it ; but the most probable 
conjecture is that which places it after the departure of the 
Israelites from Egypt, and the giving of the law on Sinai. 
It comprises the history of about two thousand three hundred 
and sixty-nine years, according to the common computation 
of time. 

This book is divided into four parts. The first part con- 
tains the origin of the world, chapter first and second. The 
second part contains the history of the former world, chapter 
third to seventh. The third part contains the general his- 
torg of mankind, after the Deluge, chapter eighth to the 
eleventh. The fourth part contains the particular history of 
the patriarchs, chapter twelfth to the fiftieth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

The Creation — The Fall of Man from his Innoeeney — His Expulsion 
from Eden — The History of Adam and his Posterity — Translation of 
Enoch— Noah and his Preaching — The Increase of Wickedness in the 
World — Its Destruction by a Deluge — The Preservation of Noah and his 
Family — The Division of the Earth among the Sons of Noah — The Build- 
ing of Babel — The Confusion of Tongues — The Dispersion of Mankind 

The Particular History of the Patriarchs — Destruction of Sodom — The 
History of Abraham and his Family— Birth of Isaac — The Trial of 
Abraham — The Death of Sarah — Marriage of Isaac — Death of Abraham — 
History of the Church, under the Patriarchs Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph, 
containing Kemarkable Instances of Particular Providences. 






BIBLICAL HISTORY. 283 



Exodus. 



A.M. The title of this book is also derived from the 
2299, Septuagint version, and is significant of the principal 
transaction it records,' namely, the E20A02, (Exodos,) 
Exodus, or departure of the Israelites from Eg)^pt. It com- 
prises a history of the events that took place during the 
period of one hundred and forty-five years — from the year of 
the world 2369 to 2514, inclusive — from the death of Joseph 
to the erection of the tabernacle. This book shows the ac- 
complishment of the divine promises made to Abraham of 
the increase of his posterity ; and their departure from Egypt, 
after suffering great affliction. It contains — 

1. An account of the oppression of the Israelites, and the 
transactions previously to their departure out of Egypt, chapter 
first to the eleventh. 

2. The narrative of the Exodus, or departure of the Isra- 
elites, chapter twelfth and thirteenth. 

3. Transactions subsequent to the Exodus, chapter four- 
teenth to the eighteenth. 

4. The promulgation of the law on Mount Sinai, chapter 
nineteenth to the fortieth. 



SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

The design of this book was evidently to preserve the memorial of 
the departure of the children of Israel out of Egypt, and the wonderful 
providence of God in their deliverance and preservation as a nation. It 
records events which are the fulfilment of promises and prophecies made 
to Abraham. The contents of the book may thus be summed up : — 
The Affliction of the Israelites under Egyptian Task-masters — The De- 
struction of all the Male Children at Birth — The Birth of Moses — His 
Preservation — His Adoption into the Family of Pharaoh — His Flight to 
Midian — The Burning Bush — His Commission to deliver Israel — A Sign 
given him — His Return to Egypt, and Message to Pharaoh — Miracles 
wrought by him — Magicians of Egypt imitate them- -The Ten Plagues — 
The First-born slain — The Departure of the Israelites — Sanctification of 
the First-born — Pillar of Cloud and Fire — Passage of the Red Sea — De- 
struction of the Egyptian Army — Marah sweetened— -Manna given — 



284 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

The Covenant of Sinai — Ten Commandments given — Law concerning 
Altars — Judicial Laws — Moral and Ceremonial Laws — Sabbatical Year — 
Israel's Covenant with God — Moses converses with God, in the Mount, 
Forty Days — Directions for making the Ark, and the Furniture of the 
Tabernacle — The Veil and the Altar of Burnt-offering — Aaron set apart 
for the Priesthood — The Urim and Thummim — Patterns of the Priestly 
Robes — Consecration of the Priests — Altar of Incense — Ransom of Souls 
— Sacred Perfume — Sabbath, a Perpetual Covenant — The Tables broken 
by Moses — He intercedes for the People — God talks with him — Tables 
renewed — God's Instruction to Moses — Comes down from the Mount — 
Contributions for the Tabernacle — Construction of the Tabernacle, and 
Making of its Furniture — The Altar of Burnt-offering, and the Offerings 
made thereon — Holy Garments, and Dress of the Priests — The Tabernacle 
completed, and filled with Glory — Burnt-offerings of the Flocks. 

Leviticus. 

A. M. Leviticus, called in the Septuagint AETITIKON, 
[LevitiJcon^) derives its name from the circumstance 



of its containing the laws concerning the religion of the Is- 
raelites. It is of great use in explaining many passages of 
the New Testament, especially the Epistle to the Hebrews, 
which, otherwise, would be inexplicable. The book may be 
divided as follows : — 

1. The laws concerning sacrifices, in which the different 
kinds of sacrifices are enumerated, together with their con- 
comitant rites, chapter first to the seventh. 

2. The institution of the priesthood, in which the conse- 
cration of Aaron and his sons to the sacred office is related, 
together with the punishment of Nadab and Abihu, chapter 
eighth to the tenth. 

3. The laws concerning purifications, both of the people 
and the priests, chapter eleventh, to the twenty-second. 

4. The laws concerning the sacred festivals, vows, things 
devoted, and tithes. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

The Ceremonial Law of the Israelites, such as Burnt-offerings of the 
Flocks — Law of Peace-offering and Sin-offering for the People — Law in 
Relation to Unclean Things-— Trespass-offering — Meat-offering — Peace- 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 285 

offering — Portion of the Priests — Aaron and his Sons consecrated — The 
Earn of Consecration — High Priest's Offering — Aaron enters on the 
Priestly Office — Death of Nadab and Abihu — Clean and Unclean Ani- 
mals — Casualties making Meats unclean — Ceremonial Purification — 
Law concerning Leprosy — Cleansing the Leper — Rites and Sacrifices — 
Ceremonial Purifications — High Priest's Sin-offering — The Live Goat — 
Directions concerning Sacrifices — Blood forbidden to be eaten — Incest 
defined and forbidden— Ceremonial and Moral Laws and Ordinances 
repeated — Laws against Iniquity — Moral Laws — Laws concerning the 
Priests and Sacrifices — Divers Feasts and Offerings — Yearly Sacrifices and 
Solemn Feasts — Blasphemy punished with Death — Sabbatical Year and 
Jubilee — Redemption of Servants — Promises and Threatenings — Mercy 
promised to the Repentant — Law concerning Vows. 



Numbers. 

A. M. This book was entitled API9M0I, (Arithmoi,) 
and, by the Latin translators, it was termed Numeri, 



Numbers, from whence the English title is derived, because 
it contains an account of the numbering of the children of 
Israel. Besides the numeration and marshalling of the Is- 
raelites for their journey, several laws, in addition to those 
delivered in Exodus and Leviticus, and likewise several re- 
markable events, are recorded in this book. It contains a 
history of the Israelites, from the beginning of the second 
month of the second year after their departure from Egypt 
to the beginning of the eleventh month of the fortieth year 
of their journeyings; that is, a period of thirty years and 
nine months. This book may be divided into four parts : — 

1. The census of the Israelites, and the marshalling of 
them into a regular camp, each tribe by itself, under its own 
captain or chief, distinguished by his own peculiar standard, 
and occupying an assigned place with reference to the taber- 
nacle. The sacred census of the Levites, the designation of 
them to the sacred office, and the appointment of them to 
various services in the tabernacle, are related in chapters third 
and fourth. 

2. The institution of various legal ceremonies, chapter fifth 
to the tenth. 



286 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

3. The history of their journey from Mount Sinai to the 
land of Moab, which may be described and distinguished by 
their eight remarkable murmurings in the way, every one of 
which was visited with severe chastisements, chapter eleventh 
to the twenty-first. 

4. A history of the transactions which took place in the 
plains of Moab, chapter twenty-second to thirty-sixth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

The Numbering of the Men of "War, and all the Israelites — The Le- 
vites are exempted — Stations of the Several Tribes — Separation of the 
Israelites — Levites numbered — Office of the Levites — Unclean put out 
of the Camp — The Bitter Waters of Jealousy — The Law concerning 
Nazarites — A Form of Benediction appointed — The Offerings of the 
Princes upon dedicating the Altar — The Light of the Sanctuary — Law 
of the Passover — Pillar of Cloud and Fire — Use of Silver Trumpets — 
Moving of the Camp — Murmurings of the Israelites — Manna loathed — 
Prophecy of the Seventy Elders — Miriam smitten with Leprosy— Mission 
of the Twelve Spies — Murmurings — Intercession of Moses — Death of the 
Evil Spies — Laws concerning Sacrifices — Sabbath-breaker stoned — ^Re- 
bellion of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram — Their Destruction — Blossoming 
of Aaron's Rod — Maintenance of the Priests — Ashes of Purification — ■ 
The People murmur for Water — Miraculous Supply from the Rock — 
Death of Aaron — The Brazen Serpent — Balak and Balaam — Balaam's 
Journey to Balak — Balaam's Ass speaketh — Balak's Sacrifice — Balaam's 
Parables of Israel's Prosperity — The Zeal of Phineas — Numbering of the 
People in the Plains of Moab — The Land divided — Moses warned of his 
Death — Joshua named as. his Successor — Laws concerning Sacrifices — ■ 
Solemnities of the Seventh Month — Concerning Vows — Slaughter of the 
Midianites — Spoil of the Midianites, and the Distribution thereof — 
Request of the Reubenites respecting their Inheritance — Encampment 
of the Israelites — Canaanites doomed — Boundaries of Canaan — The Law 
of Murder. 

Deuteronomy. 

A. M. The fifth book of Moses derives its name from 
the title AETTEPONOMION, {D enter onomion) 



prefixed to it by the translators of the Septuagint, which is 
a compound term, signifying the second law, or the law re- 
peated, because it contains a repetition of the law of God, 
given by Moses to the Israelites. The period of time com- 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 287 

prised in this book is about two months. It has four parts, 
as follows : — 

1. A repetition of the history related in the preceding 
books, chapter first to the fourth. 

2. A repetition of the moral, ceremonial, and judicial law, 
chapter fifth to the twenty-sixth. 

3. The confirmation of the law, chapter twenty-seventh to 
the thirtieth. 

4. The personal history of Moses, chapter thirty-first to 
the thirty-third. 

The thirty-fourth chapter was, in all probability, written 
by Joshua. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Cities of Refuge — Law of Inheritance — Moses rehearseth the Story 
of God's Promises — Seed of Esau and Lot spared — History of the Moab- 
ites — Sihon and Og subdued — Allotment of the Conquered Land — Moses 
exhorts to Obedience — Cities of Refuge — The Decalogue repeated — Ca- 
naanites to be destroyed — Conditions of God's Mercy — Idolatry to be 
avoided — Moses's Charge continued — Israel's Rebellion rehearsed — 
Renewing the Two Tables — Obedience recommended — Charge continued 
— Place of Burnt-offering — Blood forbidden — Cautions against Idolatry 
— Meats Clean and Unclean — Concerning Tithes — The Year of Release — 
Yearly Feasts — Authority of the Judges — Idolaters must be slain — Du- 
ties of a King — The Great Prophet — Cities of Refuge — Laws to be ob- 
served in War — Hittites to be destroyed — Of Uncertain Murder — The 
Wicked Son — Punishment of Fornication — Punishment of Rape — Clean- 
liness enjoined — Law of Divorce — Justice and Generosity — Amalek to 
be destroyed — First-fruits and Tithes — The Curse from Ebal — Promises 
— Threatenings in Case of Disobedience — The Covenant renewed — Mer- 
cies to the Penitent — Advantages of Revelation — Solemn Warnings — 
Apostasy foretold — The Song of Moses — Moses's Blessing on the Twelve 
Tribes — Moses's View from Pisgah — His Death and Burial. 

Joshua. 

A. M. The book of Joshua, which, in all the copies of 
the Old Testament, immediately follows the Penta- 



teuch, is thus denominated because it contains a narration 
of the achievements of Joshua, the son of Nun, who had 



288 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

been the minister of Moses, and succeeded him in the com- 
mand of the children of Israel. It has always been received 
by the Jews as part of their canon of Scripture. This book 
comprises the history of about seventeen years, and, some 
chronologers think, thirty. It contains — 

1. The history of the occupation of Canaan by the Israel- 
ites, chapter first to twelfth. 

2. The division of the conquered land, chapter thirteenth 
to the twenty-second. 

3. The assembling of the people, by the dying address 
and counsels of Joshua— his death and burial, chapter twenty- 
third to the twenty-fourth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Joshua succeeds Moses — The Two Spies andRahab — Joshua's Approach 
to Jordan — Passage over Jordan — God magnifies Joshua — The Manna 
ceases — Siege of Jericho — Jericho destroyed — Israelites smitten at Ai — 
The Sin of Achan — Destruction of Ai — Reading of the Law — The Gibe- 
onites' Craft — Sun and Moon stand still — Five Kings slain — Joshua's 
Victories — Opposition of Jabin — Hazor taken and burned — Distribution 
of Canaan — Caleb's Inheritance- — The Borders of Judah — Othniel's Val- 
our and Reward — Cities of Judah — Borders of the Sons of Joseph — Tab- 
ernacle at Shiloh — Inheritance of Benjamin — Simeon's Inheritance — Lots 
of Several Tribes — Joshua's Inheritance — Six Cities of Refuge — Forty- 
eight Cities given by Lot to the Levites — Two Tribes and a half dis- 
missed — Altar of the Reubenites — Joshua's Farewell and Exhortation — 
His Death and Burial. 

Judges, 

A. M. The book of Judges derives its name from its 
2579 . . . 

containing the history of the Israelites, from the 



death of Joshua to the time of Eli, under the administration 
of thirteen judges, and, consequently, before the establishment 
of the regal government. It was supposed to have been 
written by the prophet Samuel, and contains the following 
parts : — 

1. The state of the Israelites after the death of Joshua 
until they began to turn aside from serving the Lord, chapter 
first to the third. 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 289 

2. The history of the oppressions of the Israelites, and 
their deliverances by the judges, chapter fourth to the six- 
teenth. 

3. An account of the introduction of idolatry among the 
Israelites, and the consequent corruption of religion and 
manners among them, for which God gave them up into the 
hands of their enemies, chapter seventeenth to the twenty- 
first. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Judah's Commission to fight the Canaanites — An Angel rebukes the 
Israelites — Idolatry of the Israelites — Eglon slain by Ehud — Israel en- 
slaved by Jabin — Defeat and Death of Sisera — Song of Deborah and Ba- 
rak — Call of Gideon — Gideon's Deliverance — Gideon's Fleece — Gideon's 
Stratagem — His Victory — Succoth and Penuel punished — Gideon's Ephod 
— The Cruelty of Abimelech — Gaal's Insurrection — Abimelech's Ven- 
geance — His Death — Israel oppressed by the Ammonites — Jephthah's 
Expedition to Ammon — Jephthah's Rash Vow — The Ephraimites quarrel 
— An Angel appears to Manoah — Manoah's Sacrifice — The Birth of Sam- 
son—Samson's Riddle— Slaughter of the Philistines— Delilah's Treachery 
—Death of Samson — Micah and his Gods— Expedition of the Danites— 
The Levite and his Concubine— The Wickedness of Gibeah— The Israel- 
ites roused to Revenge— War with the Benjamites— Their Defeat— Lam- 
entation for them— The Virgins of Shiloh surprised. 

Ruth. 

A. M. The book of Ruth is generally considered as an 
appendix to that of Judges, and an introduction to 



that of Samuel. It is, therefore, with great propriety, placed 
between the books of Judges and Samuel. It relates, with 
great beauty and simplicity, the history of a Moabitish dam- 
sel, who renounced idolatry, and, by marriage, was engrafted 
among the Israelites. David descended from her. The 
adoption of Ruth, a heathen convert to Judaism, into the 
line of Christ, has generally been considered as a pre-inti- 
mation of the admission of the Gentiles into the Church. 
A further design of this book is to evince the care of Divine 
Providence over those who sincerely fear God, in raising the 

13 



290 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

pious Ruth from a state of the deepest adversity to that of 
the highest prosperity. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

The History of Elimelech and Naomi — Ruth's Constancy to Naomi — 
Kindness of Boaz to Ruth — Ruth's Visit to Boaz— Her Marriage to Boaz 
—The Birth of Obed. 

Books of Samuel. 

A. M. In the Jewish canon of Scripture these two books 
2833 

form but one, termed, in the Hebrew, the book of 



Samuel, probably because the greater part of the first book 
was written by that prophet, whose history and transactions 
it relates. According to the Talmudical writers, the first 
twenty-four chapters of the first book of Samuel were written 
by the prophet whose name they bear, and the remainder 
of that book, together with the whole of the second book,, 
was committed to writing by the prophets Gad and Nathan, 
agreeably to the practice of the prophets, who wrote memoirs 
of the transactions of their respective times. 

The first book of Samuel contains the history of the Jew- 
ish Church and polity, from the birth of Samuel, during the 
judicature of Eli, to the death of Saul, the first king of Israel, 
a period of nearly eighty years. It comprises — 

1. The transactions under the judicature of Eli, chapter 
first to the fourth. 

2. The history of the Israelites during the judicature of 
Samuel, chapter fifth to the thirteenth. 

3. The history of Saul, and the events of his reign, chap- 
ter fourteenth to the thirty-first. 

The second book of Samuel contains the history of David, 
the second king of Israel, during a period of nearly forty 
years. This book consists of three principal divisions, relating 
the triumphs and troubles of David, as follows :.— 

1. The triumphs of David, chapter first to the tenth. 

2. The troubles of David, and their cause, together with 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 291 

his repentance and recovery of the divine favour, chapter 
eleventh to the twenty-fourth. 

3. David's restoration to the throne, and subsequent trans- 
actions, chapter twentieth to the twenty-fourth. The two 
books of Samuel are generally regarded as a key to the book 
of Psalms. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

The History of Elkanah and Hannah — Hannah's Prayer — Wickedness of 
Eli's Sons — Eli and his House threatened — The Call of Samuel — The Isra- 
elites overcome by their Enemies — Death of Eli — The Ark among the Phil- 
istines — Restoration of the Ark — The Philistines smitten — Request for a 
King — Saul seeks his Father's Asses — His Interview with Samuel — Samuel 
anoints him— Saul among the Prophets — The Election of a King — Samuel's 
Discourse to Israel — He calls for Thunder — The Philistines war against 
Israel — Jonathan's Miraculous Success — Saul's Harsh Oath — Jonathan 
condemned — The Amalekites destroyed — Saul's Dethronement foretold 
—Samuel kills Agag — David anointed by Samuel — Goliath's challenge 
to Israel — David comes to the Camp and slays Goliath — Jonathan's Love 
to David — Saul seeks to kill him — David marries Saul's Daughter — 
Saul's Jealousy of David — Saul prophesies before Samuel — Jonathan's 
Covenant with David — David at Nob with Abimelech — David in the Cave 
of Adullam — Saul destroys the Lord's Priests — David in the Wilderness 
of Ziph — David spares Saul in a Cave — Death of Samuel — Nabal's Prov- 
ocation of David — David threatens to kill Xabal — Abigail pacifies David 
— David spares Saul's Life — Saul acknowledges his Fault and ceases 
his Persecution — He consults the Witch of Endor, who raiseth Samuel 
— Saul's Ruin foretold — The Amalekites burn Ziklag — David recovers 
the Spoil — Death of Saul and Jonathan — David laments for Saul. 

A. M. The second book of Samuel contains the following : — The 
2948. Ascension of David to the Throne of Israel — Asahel slain by 
Abner — Abner's Desertion to David — Joab's Murder of Abner— Death of 
Ishbosheth by his Servants — David reigns over all Israel — The Bringing 
of the Ark from Kirjath-jearim — Joy on the Restoration of the Ark — 
God's Covenant with David — David's Conquests — His Kindness to Jona- 
than's Son — Hanun's Usage of David's Servants — David's Sin with Bath- 
sheba — Nathan's Parable — Death of David's Child — Solomon's Birth — 
Amnon's Incest — Absalom causes Amnon's Death — Joab's Art in Absa- 
lom's Favour — Absalom's Return— Absalom's Rebellion — David's Flight 
— He is cheated by Ziba, and cursed by Shimei — Ahithophel's Counsel — 
Hushai's Counsel accepted — Ahithophel hangs himself— Death of Absa- 
lom — David's Lamentation over him — Shimei pardoned — David returns 



292 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

to Jerusalem — Sheba's Rebellion — Amasa slain — The Gibeonites avenged 
— The Giants subdued — David's Song of Praise — David's Last "Words — 
His Mighty Men — Solomon proclaimed — David's Dying Charge — The 
People numbered — The Numbering punished. 



Books of Kings. 

A. M. The two books of Kings are closely connected 
2989 . . . 

with those of Samuel. The origin and gradual in- 



crease of the united kingdom of Israel, under Saul and 
David, having been described in the latter, the books now 
under consideration relate its advancement and glory under 
Solomon — its division into two kingdoms, under Rehoboam 
— the causes of that division, and the consequent decline of 
the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah, until their final sub- 
version — the ten tribes being carried captive into Assyria, 
and Judah and Benjamin to Babylon. 

In the Jewish canon these books constitute but one, termed 
Kings, having been divided, at some unknown period, into 
two parts, for the convenience of reading. In the Septuagint 
and Vulgate they are termed the third and fourth book of 
Kings. They are generally ascribed to Ezra. 

The first book of Kings embraces a period of one hundred 
and twenty-six years, from the anointing of Solomon and 
his admission as a partner in the throne, to the death of 
Jehoshaphat. It may be divided into two principal parts, 
containing — 

1. The history of Solomon's reign, embracing the latter 
days of David. The reign of Solomon to the dedication of 
the temple, and subsequent transactions, chapter first to the 
eleventh, and second to the forty-sixth, and chapter third to 
the eighth. 

2. The history of the two kingdoms of Judah and Israel, 
including the accession of Rehoboam and the division of the 
two kingdoms. The reigns of Rehoboam and Jeroboam. 
The reigns of Abijam and Asa, kings of Judah, and the 
contemporary reigns of Nadab, Baasha, Elah, Zimri, Omri, 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 293 

and the reigns of Jehoshaphat, and Ahab, and Ahaziah, 
chapter eleventh to the twenty-second. 

The second booh of Kings continues the contemporary- 
history of the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah, from the 
death of Jehoshaphat to the destruction of the city and 
temple, a period of three hundred years. The history con- 
tained in the boob may be divided into two parts — 

1. The contemporary history of the kingdoms of Israel 
and Judah to the end of the former, chapter first to the 
seventeenth. 

2. The history of the decline and fall of the kingdom of 
Judah, chapter eighteenth to the twenty-fifth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Adonij all's Invasion of the Throne — Solomon proclaimed — David's 
Dying Charge — Adonijah's and Joab's Death — Destruction of Shimei — 
God's Appearance to Solomon — The Wisdom of Solomon — Solomon's 
Princes and Officers — His Distinguished Reputation — His Agreement 
with Hiram — Building of the Temple— Ornaments and Sacred Ves- 
sels — Dedication of the Temple — Solomon's Prayer — He blesses the 
Congregation — God's Answer to Solomon — Solomon's Buildings — Visit 
of the Queen of Sheba — Solomon's Degeneracy — God's Anger against 
Solomon — Death of Solomon — Revolt of the Ten Tribes — Jeroboam's 
Idolatry— Jeroboam's Hand withered — The Deceived Prophet slain — 
Jeroboam threatened — Rehoboam's Disgrace and Death — Asa's Ex- 
cellencies and Defects — Baasha's Wicked Reign — Zimri's Treason and 
Death — Ahab's Wickedness — Elijah fed by the Ravens — Elijah's Inter- 
view with Obadiah— Trial of the False Prophets — Elijah's Flight from 
Jezebel — The Call of Elisha — Benhadad's Siege of Samaria — Death of 
Benhadad — Ahab's Folly reproved — Naboth murdered by Jezebel — 
Ahab's Humility — Jehoshaphat's League with Ahab — Micaiah's Predic- 
tion — Ahab's Death — Jehoshaphat's Death. 

A. M. The Second Book of Kings contains: — The Rebellion of Moab 
3^08. — Elijah brings Fire from Heaven — His Translation to Heaven 
— Elisha heals the Waters of the Jordan — Defeat of the Moabites — In- 
crease of the Widow's Oil — The Restoration of the Shunemite's Son — The 
Healing of the Deadly Pottage — Miracles by Elisha — Cure of Naaman's 
Leprosy — Gehazi's Sin and Punishment — The Syrian ensnared — Famine 
in Samaria — Samaria plentifully supplied — The Shunemite's Land re- 
stored — Hazael's Barbarity predicted — Jehu anointed King — Joram and 
Ahaziah slain — Death of Jezebel — Baal's Worshippers slain — Jehu's In- 



294 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

consistency — Death of Athaliah — Wicked Reign of Jehoash — Death of 
Elisha — Jehoash defeats Amaziah — Reign of Azariah — Reigns of Shal- 
lum, Pekahiah, Pekah, &c. — Reign of Ahaz — The Israelites carried Cap- 
tive — The Samaritans' Idolatry — Hezekiah's Good Reign — Sennacherib 
invades Judea — Rabshakeh's Blasphemous Speech — Hezekiah sends to 
Isaiah — Sennacherib's Fall predicted — Hezekiah's Sickness and Recovery 
— Manasseh's Impious Reign — His Ruin foretold — Josiah's Pious Reign 
— Destroys Idolatry and reforms Judea — His Zeal — Death of Josiah — 
Jehoiachin carried into Captivity — Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem — 
The High-priest and Nobles slain. 

Boohs of Chronicles. 

A. M. The Jews comprise the two books of Chronicles 

— into one, which they call The Words of Days, because 

they were compiled out of diaries or annals. In the Septua- 
gint they are called Paraleipomena, or things omitted, be- 
cause many things omitted in the former part of sacred history 
are here recorded. The appellation of Chronicles was given by 
Jerome, because they contain an abstract, in the order of time, 
of the whole of sacred history, to the time in which they 
were written. They are a compilation from other books. 
The period of time embraced in them is about three thousand 
four hundred and sixty-eight years. They may be divided 
into four parts — 

1. Genealogical tables, from Adam to the time of Ezra, 
1 Chronicles, chapter first to the ninth. 

2. The histories of Saul and David, chapter tenth to the 
twenty-ninth. 

3. The history of the united kingdom of Israel and Judah, 
under Solomon, chapter twenty-ninth, verses twenty-third to 
thirtieth ; 2 Chronicles, first to the ninth. 

4. The history of the kingdom of Judah, from the revolt 
of the ten tribes to its termination, 2 Chronicles, tenth to the 
thirty-sixth. 

As the books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, relate to 
the same histories, they should each be read and collated 
together, as they give a comprehensive history of the Jewish 
nation, and serve to illustrate each other. 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 295 



SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 



Genealogies — The Sons of Israel — The Family of David — Genealogies 
— Defeat of the Hagarites — Posterity of Judah — The Line of Reuben — 
The Sons of Levi — The Sons of Issachar — The Sons of Benjamin — Gen- 
ealogies of Israel and Judah — Saul's Overthrow and Death — David made 
King of Israel — The Armies that helped David — David removeth the 
Ark — Hiram's Kindness to David — David's Psalm of Thanksgiving — Na- 
than's Message to David — David's Victories — David's Messengers ill- 
treated — Rabbah taken and spoiled — The Plague stayed — Preparation 
for the Temple — Solomon made King — The Order of .Aaron's Sons — The 
Number of the Singers — The Division of the Porters — The Twelve Gap- 
tains — David's Exhortation — David's Reign and Death. 

A. M. The Second Book of Chronicles embraces : — Solomon's Offering 
2889. — Solomon sends to Hiram — Building of the Temple — The Ves- 
sels of the Temple — Temple finished — Solomon's Blessing — His Sacrifice 
— Builds Cities — Queen of Sheba's Visit to Solomon — Rehoboain made 
King— Judah strengthened — Rehoboam's Reign and Death — Abijah's 
Victory over Rehoboam — Asa destroys Idolatry — His Covenant with 
God — His Death and Burial — Jehoshaphat's Good Reign — Micaiah's 
Prophecy — Jehoshaphat's Care for Justice — His Fast and Prayer — Jeho- 
ram's Wicked Reign — Ahaziah's Wicked Reign — Joash made King — 
Zechariah stoned — The Edomites overcome — Uriah's Leprosy — Jotham's 
Good Reign — Ahaz's Wicked Reign — Hezekiah's Good Reign — The Pass- 
over proclaimed — Provision for the Priests — Hezekiah's Death — Manas- 
seh's Wicked Reign — Josiah's Good Reign — Josiah slain in Battle — Jeru- 
salem destroyed. 

Ezra. 

A. M. The books of Ezra and Nehemiah were regarded 

QA(J Q 

by the Jews as one volume, and were divided by 



them into the first and second books of Ezra. The same 
division is recognised by the Greek and Latin Churches. 
Ezra is generally admitted to be the author of the book 
which bears his name. Every page of the book, indeed, 
proves that the writer of it was personally present at the 
transactions which he has recorded. The book harmonizes 
with the prophecies of Haggai and Zechariah. It evinces 
the paternal care of the Almighty over his chosen people, 
and consists of two parts — 

3. A narrative of events from the return of the Jews, 



296 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

under Zerubbabel, to the rebuilding of the temple, chapter 
first to the sixth. 

2. The arrival of Ezra at Jerusalem, and the reformation 
made there by him, chapter seventh to the tenth. 

The memory of Ezra has always been held in the highest 
veneration by the Jews. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

The Proclamation of Cyrus— The Return of the People from Babylon— 
The Erection of the Altar— The Decree of Artaxerxes— Tatnai's Letter 
to Darius— The Temple finished— Ezra's Journey to Jerusalem— Keeps 
a Fast— His Prayer— Ezra's Mourning. 

Nehemiah, 

A. M. This book was written by the person whose name 
it bears. Nehemiah was cup-bearer to Artaxerxes 



Longimanus. This book contains- 

1. An account of Nehemiah's departure from Shushan with 
a royal commission to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and 
his arrival there, chapter first; second, 1-11. 

2. An account of the building of the walls, notwithstand- 
ing the obstacles interposed by Sanballat, chapter second, 
12-20 ; third to the seventh, 4. 

3. The first reformation accomplished by Nehemiah, chap- 
ter seventh to the twelfth. 

4. The second reformation, on his second return to Jeru- 
salem, and his correction of the abuses which had crept in 
during his absence, chapter thirteenth. 

His administration lasted about thirty-six years. 



SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

The Book of Nehemiah contains : — His Lamentations for Jerusalem — 
Artaxerxes's Encouragement to Nehemiah — Names of the Builders — The 
Appointment of a Watch — Reformation of Usury — Sanballat's Practices 
— Hanani and Hananiah's Charge — The Reading of the Law — Solemn 
Fast appointed — Points of the Covenant — Persons dwelling at Jerusalem 
— The High-priest's Succession — Divers Abuses reformed — Nehemiah's 



BIBLICAL HISTOKY. 



297 



Prayer— He is sent to Jerusalem— Malice of Sanballat— Kebuilding of 
the Wall— Opposition of Sanballat— Precaution of Nehemiah— Plot of 
Sanballat — Completion of the Wall— Return of the Captives, and Regis- 
ter of their Families— The Joy of the People— Prayer of the Levites at 
the Solemn Fast— Sealing of the Covenant— Renewal of the Sacred Rites 
—Distribution of the People— Dedication of the Wall— Abuses rectified 
— Charge respecting the Sabbath — Dismissal of Strange Wives. 

Esther. 

A. M. This book is termed by the Jews the volume of 
Esther, because it chiefly consists in the relation of 



her history. The history contained in this book comes in 
between the sixth and seventh chapters of Ezra. It consists 
of two parts — 

1. The promotion of Esther to the throne of Persia, and 
the essential service rendered to the king by Mordecai, in 
detecting a plot against his life, chapter first to the second. 

2. The advancement of Haman — his designs against the 
Jews, and their frustration — and the advancement of Mor- 
decai, chapter third to the tenth. 

In our copies the book of Esther terminates with the third 
verse of the tenth chapter; but in the Greek and Latin 
there are ten more verses annexed, together with six addi- 
tional chapters, which the Greek and Roman Churches con- 
sider canonical. As they are not extant in the Hebrew they 
are expunged from the sacred canon by Protestants, and are 
supposed to have been compiled by some Hellenistic Jew. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Ahasuerus's Royal Feast — Esther made Queen — Haman despised by 
Mordecai — Mourning of the Jews — Esther obtains the King's Favour — 
Mordecai's Good Services — Haman is Hanged — Rejoicing of the Jews — 
Haman's Ten Sons hanged — Mordecai's Advancement. 

13* 



298 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

CHAPTER II. 

POETICAL BOOKS. 

The poetical books, denominated by tbe Jews the Hagio- 
grapha, are placed between the historical and prophetical 
books, without any reference to date. They are called poet- 
ical, because they are almost wholly composed in Hebrew 
verse. 

Job. 

A. M. This book has derived its title from the venerable 
patriarch whose name it bears. Some critics have 



doubted the existence of such a character as Job. That 
point, however, is satisfactorily proven by the prophet Eze- 
kiel and the apostle James, both of whom mention him as 
a real character. The length of his life places him in patri- 
archal times, and some are of the opinion that he lived 
about one hundred and eighty -four years before the time of 
Abraham. It is in the form of a dramatic poem, and was, 
in all probability, written by Job, and transcribed by Moses, 
when he was an exile in Arabia. It has been quoted by 
almost every Hebrew writer from the age of Moses to that 
of Malachi. It may be divided into six parts — 

1. Contains the exordium or narrative, written in prose, 
chapter first and second. 

2. Comprises the first debate or dialogue of Job and his 
friends, chapter third to the fourteenth. 

3. Includes the second series of debate or controversy, 
chapter fifteenth to the twenty-first. 

4. Comprehends the third series of controversy, chapter 
twenty-second to the thirty-first. 

5. Sums up the argument, chapter thirty-second to the 
thirty-seventh. 

6. Jehovah determines the controversy. Job humbles 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 299 

himself — is accepted — restored to health and prosperity, 
chapter thirty-eighth to the forty-third. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

An Account of Job's Losses and Temptations — Smitten with Boils — 
Curses the Day of his Birth — Eliphaz reproves him — Job wishes for 
Death — Excuses this Desire — Bildad showeth God's Justice — The Inno- 
cent often afflicted — Job expostulates with God — Zophar reproves Job 
— God's Omnipotency maintained — Job's Confidence in God — The Con- 
ditions of Man's Life — Eliphaz reproves Job — Job reproves his Friends 
— His Appeal to God — Bildad's Reproof — Job's Complaint — The Portion 
of the Wicked — The Destruction of the Wicked — Job accused of Divers 
Sins — God's Decree Immutable — Sin goeth often unpunished — Man 
cannot be justified before God — Job reproves Bildad — The Hypocrite 
without Hope — Wisdom is the Gift of God — Job bemoans himself — His 
Honour turned to Contempt — Professes his Integrity — Elihu reproves 
and reasons with Job — God cannot be Unjust — Comparison cannot be 
made with God — The Justice of God's Ways — God's Great Works — His 
Wisdom is Unsearchable — His Power in his Creatures — Job's Humility — 
God's Power in Creation — Job's Prosperity, Age, and Death. 

Psalms. 

This book is called, in Hebrew, the book of hymns or 
praises, because the praises of God constitute their chief 
subject, and as they were set to be sung not only with the 
voice, but also to be accompanied with instruments. {The Sep- 
tuagint designates them Bt/3Xog ^ahfitiv, (Biblos Psalmon,) 
the booh of Psalms ; and this appellation is retained in our 
Bibles. They are generally termed the Psalms of David — 
that Hebrew monarch being their chief author. Many of 
them bear his name. We have no information when these 
divine poems were collected into a volume. 

The book of Psalms being composed in Hebrew verse, 
must be studied according to the laws of Hebrew poetry. 
To enable one to enter into their force and meaning, it is 
necessary to attend to the following hints :— 

1. Investigate the argument of each Psalm. 

2. Examine the historical origin of the Psalm, or the cir- 
cumstances which led to its composition. 

3. Attend to the structure of the Psalms. 



300 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 



SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

The Happiness of the Godly — The Kingdom of Christ — The Security 
of God's Protection — Prayer for Audience — David's Profession of Faith — 
His Complaint in Sickness — The Destruction of the Wicked — God's Love 
to Man — God praised for his Judgments — The Outrage of the Wicked — 
God's Providence and Justice — David's Plea to God for Help — Boasts of 
the Divine Mercy — The Natural Man described — David's Hope of his 
Calling — A Citizen of Zion described — His Confidence — Praise to God — 
Prayer for Grace — The Church's Confidence in God — Thanksgiving for 
Victory — Complaint and Prayer — Confidence in God's Grace — God's Wor- 
ship in the World — Confidence in Prayer — David resorteth unto God — 
His Love to God's Service — Blesseth God — Reasons for honouring God — 
Praise for Deliverance — Rejoicing in God's Mercy — The Blessed— God is 
to be praised — Who are blessed — Prayer for Safety — Excellency of God's 
Mercy — Persuasion to Patience — God moved to Compassion — The Brevity 
of Life — Obedience the Best Sacrifice — God's Care of the Poor — David's 
Zeal to serve God — His Prayer to be restored — The Church's Complaint 
to God — The Majesty of Christ's Kingdom — The Church's Confidence in 
God— The Kingdom of Christ— The Privileges of the Church— Worldly 
Prosperity contemned — God's Majesty in the Church — David's Prayer and 
Confession — His Confidence in God — The Natural Man described — Da- 
vid's Prayer for Salvation — His Complaint — His Promise of Praise — De- 
scription of the Wioked — Prayer for Deliverance — Comfort in Promises — 
Vows of Perpetual Service — No Trust in Worldly Things — Thirst for God 
— Complaint of Enemies — The Blessedness of God's Chosen — Exhorta- 
tion to Praise — Prayer for God's Kingdom — Prayer at the Removing of 
the Ark — Complaint — Prayer for the Godly — For Perseverance — Prayer 
for Solomon — The Righteous sustained — Prayer for the Sanctuary — Re- 
buke of the Proud — God's Majesty in the -Church — David's Combat with 
Diffidence — God's Wrath against Israel — Prayer for the Church — Exhort- 
ation to praise God — Reproof of the Judges — The Church's Enemies — 
Longing for the Sanctuary — Prayer for Mercies — Complaint of the Proud 
— Nature and Glory of the Church — David's Complaint — God praised for 
his Power — His Providence set forth — The State of the Godly — God 
Praised for his Great Works — The Majesty of Christ's Kingdom — The 
Danger of tempting God — Praise for God's Greatness — The Majesty of 
God — All Creatures exhorted to praise God — He is to be worshipped — 
To be praised cheerfully — David's Profession of Godliness — Mercies to 
be recorded — God blessed for his Constancy — Wonderful Providences — 
David's Confidence in God — Plague of Egypt — Israel's Rebellion — Com- 
plaint — The Kingdom of Christ — Happiness of the Godly — An Exhorta- 
tion to Praise — The Vanity of Idols — Thankfulness — Praise for Mercy 
and Truth — Trust in God—Meditation, Prayer, and Praise — David's 
Prayer against Doeg — Safety of the Godly — Joy for the Church — Confi- 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 301 

dence in God — Prayer for the Godly — Church prays for Mercy — Virtue 
of God's Blessing — Fear of God — Haters of the'Church cursed — Hope, 
in God — Humility — Care for the Ark — Saints' Communion — Exhorta- 
tion — Praise for Judgments — Manifold Mercies — Constancy of the Jews — 
Confidence in God — The Wicked defied — Prayer for Deliverance — For 
Sincerity — Comfort in Trouble — David's Complaint — Prayer for his King- 
dom — Help to the Godly — Vows of Perpetual Praise — Praise for Provi- 
dences — All Creatures should praise God—God praised for his Benefits — 
Praised upon Instruments. 

Proverbs. 

A. M. The book of Proverbs has always been ascribed 

*- to Solomon. The general opinion is that several 

persons made a collection of them ; and that Hezekiah, Agur, 
Isaiah, and Ezra, were among the number. It is frequently 
quoted by the apostles. It may be divided into five parts, 
viz. : — 

1. In the proem, or exordium, containing the first nine 
chapters, the teacher gives his pupil a series of admonitions, 
directions, and cautions, as well as excitements to the study 
of wisdom. 

2. Extends from chapter tenth to the twenty-second, and 
consists of what may be strictly and properly called prov- 
erbs — namely, unconnected sentences, expressed with beauty 
and simplicity. 

3. Eeaches from chapter twenty-second, verse seventeen, 
to chapter twenty-fifth, inclusive. In this part the teacher 
drops the sententious style, and addresses his pupil as pres- 
ent. 

4. The proverbs contained in this part are supposed to 
have been selected from some larger collection of Solomon, 
by the prophets whom he employed to restore the service 
and writings of the Jewish Church. This part extends from 
the twenty-fifth to the thirtieth chapter. 

5. Comprises chapters thirtieth and thirty-first. The first 
are the instructions given by Agur, and the latter the pre- 
cepts given to Lemuel by his mother, a Jewess, married to 
some neighbouring prince. 



302 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 



SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

The Use of the Proverbs— The Benefit of Wisdom— Exhortation to 
Sundry Duties — Persuasions to Sundry Duties — Mischiefs of Licentious- 
ness — Seven Things hateful to God — Description of a Harlot — The Call 
of Wisdom — The Doctrine of Wisdom — Virtues and Vices contrasted — 
Observations about Kings — Sundry Maxims — Observations on Impiety — 
Of Public Government — Agur's Prayer — Lemuel's Lesson of Chastity. 



Ecclesiastes. 

A. M. The title of this book is derived from the Septu- 

3027 

agint, and signifies a preacher, or one who harangues 



a public congregation. In Hebrew it is termed The Words 
of the Preacher. Although this book does not bear the 
name of Solomon, it is evident he was the author of it. Its 
design is to demonstrate the vanity of all earthly objects, 
and draw off men from their pursuit, as an apparent good, 
to the fear of God and communion with him as a permanent 
good. It consists of two parts, viz. : — 

1. The vanity of all earthly conditions, occupations, and 
pleasures, chapter first to the sixth. 

2. The nature, excellence, and beneficial effects of true 
religion, chapter sixth to the twelfth. 

The conclusion, chapter twelfth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

The Vanity of all Earthly Things — The Common End of Wisdom and 
Folly— A Time for All Things—The Good of Contentment— The Vanity 
of Riches — The Conclusion of Vanities — Remedies against Vanities — 
Kings are to be respected — Wisdom is better than Strength — Wisdom 
and Folly — Directions for Charity — The Preacher's Care to edify. 



Song of Solomon, 

A. M. This book has always been reputed to be the pro- 
2990 . .■"..'.* 

duction of the Hebrew monarch. This poem was 



composed on the occasion of Solomon's marriage. All inter- 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 303 

preters agree that it is a mystical poem, or allegory. It can 
only be explained by the aid of Oriental literature and man- 
ners. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

The Church's Love to Christ — Christ's Care of the Church — Christ the 
Church's Glory — The Graces of the Church — Christ's Love to his Church 
—The Church's Faith in Christ— Graces of the Church— The Calling of 
the Gentiles. 



CHAPTER HI. 
PROPHETICAL BOOKS. 

Isaiah. 

A. M. This book is larger than all the twelve minor 
3224 
— prophets put together. Isaiah was the son of Amoz, 

and discharged the prophetic office in the days of Uzziah, 
Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. No prophet 
has so clearly predicted the circumstances relative to the ad- 
vent, sufferings, atoning death, and resurrection of the Mes- 
siah, as the author of this book ; and hence he is styled the 
evangelical prophet. The unfulfilled predictions of the ulti- 
mate triumph and extension of the Redeemer's kingdom, 
contained in this book, are unrivalled for the splendour of 
their imagery, and the beauty and sublimity of the language 
in which they are conveyed. This book may be divided 
into six parts, viz. : — 

1. Contains a general description of the condition and 
state of the Jews in the several periods of their history, 
the promulgation and success of the gospel, and the coming 
of Messiah to judgment, chapter first to the fifth. 

2. Comprises the predictions delivered in the reigns of 
Jotham and Ahaz, chapter sixth to the twelfth. 

3. Contains -various predictions against the Babylonians, 
Assyrians, Philistines, and other nations, with whom the 



304* MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Jews had any intercourse, chapter thirteenth to the twenty- 
fourth. 

4. Contains a prophecy of the great calamities which 
should fall upon the people of God, his merciful preserva- 
tion of a remnant, and their restoration to their country, and 
their conversion to Christ, and the destruction of Antichrist, 
chapter twenty-fourth to the thirty-third. 

5. Comprises the historical part of the prophecy of Isaiah, 
chapter thirty-sixth to the thirty-ninth. 

6. Comprises a series of prophecies delivered, in all 
probability, towards the close of Hezekiah's reign, chapter 
fortieth to the sixty-sixth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

The Complaint of Judah — Prophecy of Christ's Kingdom — Oppression 
of the Rulers — Christ's Kingdom a Sanctuary — God's Judgments for Sin 
— Isaiah's Vision of God's Glory — Christ promised — Israel and Judah 
threatened — The Church's Joy in Christ's Birth — God's Judgments upon 
Israel — Calling of the Gentiles — Thanksgiving for God's Mercies — Baby- 
lon threatened — Israel's Eestoration — Lamentable State of Moab — Syria 
and Israel threatened — God's Care of his People — The Confusion of 
Egypt— Egypt and Ethiopia's Captivity — The Fall of Babylon — The In- 
vasion of Jewry — Tyre's Miserable Overthrow — Judgments of God for 
Sin — Praise to God — God's Care of his Vineyard — Ephraim threatened — 
God's Judgment on Jerusalem — God's Mercies toward his Church — Des- 
olation foreshown — Privileges of the Godly — Vindication of the Church 
— Blessings of the Gospel — Insult to Hezekiah by Rabshakeh — Hezekiah's 
Prayer — His Thanksgiving — Babylonian Captivity foretold — Promulga- 
tion of the Gospel — God's Mercies to his Church — Christ's Mission to the 
Gentiles — Comfort to the Church — The Vanity of Idols — Cyrus called — 
God's Judgment upon Babylon — The Intent of Prophecy — Christ sent to 
the Gentiles — Christ's Sufferings and Patience — The Certainty of God's 
Salvation — Christ's Free Redemption — The Humiliation of Christ — The 
Church's Enlargement — The Happy State of Believers — Exhortation to 
Holiness — God reproves the Jews — Hypocrisy reproved — The Covenant 
of the Redeemer— The Glory of the Church— The Office of Christ— God's 
Promises to his Church — Christ shows his Power to save — The Church's 
Prayer— The Calling of the Gentiles— The Growth of the Church. 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 305 



Jeremiah. 



A. M. The prophet Jeremiah was one of the sacerdotal 

2375 

race, being one of the priests that dwelt in the land 



of Benjamin, about three miles north of Jerusalem. He 
entered upon the prophetic office early in life, and prophesied 
about forty years. He followed the remnant of the Jews on 
retiring into Egypt. His prophecies are levelled against the 
crimes of his countrymen. His prophecies are not in the 
chronological order in which they were delivered. Chrono- 
logically arranged, they may be thus divided : — 

1. Prophecies delivered in the reign of Josiah, chapter 
first to the twelfth, inclusive. 

2. Prophecies delivered in the reign of Jehoiakim, chapters 
thirteenth, twentieth, twenty-second, twenty-third, thirty-fifth, 
thirty-sixth, forty-fifth, forty-eighth, and forty-ninth. 

3. Prophecies delivered in the reign of Zedekiah, including 
chapters twenty-first, twenty-fourth, twenty-seventh, thirty- 
fourth, thirty-seventh, thirty-ninth, and forty-ninth. 

4. Prophecies delivered under the government of Gedaliah, 
from the taking of Jerusalem to the retreat into Egypt, and 
prophecies delivered in that country, including chapters for- 
tieth and forty-fourth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

The Calling of Jeremiah — Israel spoiled for his Sins — God's Mercy to 
Judah — Israel called to Repentance — God's Judgments upon the Jews — 
Enemies sent against Judah — Jeremiah's Call for Repentance — The Ca- 
lamities of the Jews — Jeremiah's Lamentation — The Vanity of Idols — 
God's Covenant proclaimed — The Prosperity of the Wicked — An Exhort- 
ation to Repentance — The Prophet's Prayer — Jeremiah's Complaint — 
The Utter Ruin of the Jews— The Captivity of Judah— The Type of the 
Potter — The Desolation of the Jews — Pashur smiteth Jeremiah — Nebu- 
chadnezzar's War — The Judgment of Shallum — Restoration of God's 
People — The Type of Good and Bad Figs — Jeremiah's Reproof of the Jews 
— He is arraigned — Nebuchadnezzar's Conquests — Hananiah's Prophecy 
— Jeremiah's Letter — The Return of the Jews — The Restoration of Is- 
rael — The Imprisonment of Jeremiah — Christ, the Branch, promised — 
Zedekiah's Fate foretold — God blesses the Rechabites — Jeremiah's Proph- 



306 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

ecies — The Chaldeans' Siege raised — Jeremiah cast into a Dungeon — Je- 
rusalem taken — Jeremiah set at Liberty — Ishmael killeth Gedaliah — 
Johanan's Promise — Jeremiah carried to Egypt — Judah's Desolation — 
Baruch comforted — Overthrow of Pharaoh's Army — Destruction of Phi- 
listines — Judgment of Moab — Restoration of Elam — Redemption of Is- 
rael — God's Judgments — Zedekiah's Wicked Reign. 

Lamentations. 

A. M. That Jeremiah was the author of these elegies, 
— or lamentations, has never been doubted. This 



book contains five chapters, forming as many pathetic 
elegies. In the first four the prophet bewails the calamities 
of his country, and the fifth is an epilogue to the preceding 
ones. 



SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

The Carrying away of King Jehoiakim, with Ten Thousand of the prin- 
cipal Hebrews — The Assault of Jerusalem — The Calamities undergone 
by the Prophet — The Overthrow of Jerusalem — The Carrying away of 
King Zedekiah, and the Slaughter of the Hebrews — The Wretched Con- 
dition of the People after the Destruction of the City. 

EzeTciel. 

A. M. Ezeldel was the son of Buzi, of the sacerdotal 
race, and one of the captives carried away to Baby- 



lon. The principal scene of his predictions was some place 
on the river Chebar, which flows into the Euphrates, about 
two hundred miles to the north of Babylon, where the prophet 
resided. He entered upon his prophetic office in the thirtieth 
year of his age, and continued in it about twenty years. His 
prophecies are chronologically arranged, and may be divided 
into four parts, viz. : — 

1. His call to the prophetic office — his commission and 
instructions for executing it — chapters first, second, and 
third. 

2. Denunciations against the Jewish people, chapters third 
and fourth to the twenty-fourth. 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 307 

3. His prophecies against various neighbouring nations, 
enemies to the Jews, chapter twenty-fifth to the thirty-second. 

4. Contains a series of exhortations and promises to the 
Jews of future deliverance, under Cyrus, and their final res- 
toration and conversion to the Messiah, chapters thirty-third 
to the forty-sixth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Ezekiel's Vision — His Commission — Eating of the Roll — Type of the 
Siege — Type of Hair — Israel threatened — Israel's Desolation — Vision of 
Jealousy — The Marked preserved — Vision of Coals of Fire — The Pre- 
sumption of the Priest — The Type of Removing — Lying Prophets — Idola- 
ters exhorted — Rejection of Jerusalem — God's Love to Jerusalem — The 
Eagles and the Vine^-Parable of Sour Grapes — Of the Lion's Whelps — 
Israel's Rebellions — Prophecy against Jerusalem — Jerusalem's Sins — Aho- 
lah and Aholibah — Jerusalem's Destruction — Ammonites threatened — 
The Fall of Tyrus— Tyrus's Rich Supply— Zidon threatened— The Judg- 
ment of Pharaoh — Desolation of Egypt — The Glory and Fall of Assyria — 
The Fall of Egypt — Ezekiel admonished^— God's Care of his Flock — 
Judgment of Seir — Israel comforted — Vision of Dry Bones — The Malice 
of Gog — Description of the Temple — Ornaments of the Temple — The 
Priests' Chambers — Return of God's Glory — The Priests reproved — Divi- 
sion of the Land — Ordinances for the Princes — Vision of the Holy Waters 
— Portions of the Twelve Tribes. 

Daniel. 

A. M. Daniel was of royal birth, and, at an early age, 
was carried away a captive to Babylon. Having 



been instructed in the language and literature of the Chal- 
deans, he afterwards held a very distinguished office in the 
Babylonian empire. He was a contemporary with Ezekiel, 
and his extraordinary piety and wisdom were proverbial. 
He lived in great credit with the Babylonian monarchs, and 
his uncommon merit procured him the same regard from 
Darius and Cyrus, the first two sovereigns of Persia. His 
prophecy may be divided into two parts : — 

1. Comprises the historical portion of this book. It con- 
tains a narrative of the circumstances which led to Daniel's 
elevation, chapter first to the sixth. 



308 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

2. Comprises various prophecies and visions of things fu- 
ture, until the advent and death of the Messiah, and the ulti- 
mate conversion of the Jews and Gentiles to the faith of the 
gospel, chapter seventh to the twelfth. 

This amazing series of prophecies extends through many 
successive ages, from the first establishment of the Persian 
empire, five hundred and thirty years before Christ, to the 
general resurrection. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Daniel's Captivity — His Advancement — The Account of Shadrach, Me- 
shach, and Abednego — Nebuchadnezzar's Pride and Fall — Belshazzar's 
Impious Feast — Daniel's Interpretation of the Mysterious Writing — He 
is invested with Power — Decree of Darius — Daniel in the Den of Lions — 
Vision of the Four Beasts — Interpretation — Vision of the Ram and He- 
goat — Gabriel's Interpretation — Confesses Israel's Sins — Comforted by 
an Angel — Overthrow of Persia — Israel's Deliverance. 

Jlosea. 

A. M. Hosea was an Israelite, who lived in the kingdom 
of Samaria. His predictions are chiefly levelled 



against the Israelites, for their sins. His boob contains four- 
teen chapters, and may be divided into five parts, viz. : — 

1. Their idolatry is described, and they are exhorted to 
forsake it. Promises are introduced on the general conver- 
sion of the twelve tribes to Christianity, chapters first, second, 
and third. 

2. A reproof of the bloodshed and idolatry of the Israel- 
ites, against which the inhabitants of Judah are exhorted to 
take warning, interspersed with promises of pardon, chapters 
fourth to the sixth. 

3. The prophet's exhortations to repentance proving inef- 
fectual, God complains of their obstinacy, and threatens 
them with captivity, chapters sixth, seventh, and eighth. 

4. Captivity and dispersion further threatened. Eeturn 
to their own country foretold. Further threatenings on ac- 
count of idolatry, chapters ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and 
thirteenth. 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 309 

5. Denunciation of punishment. Exhortation to repent- 
ance. Their restoration from idolatry, and their conversion 
to the gospel foretold, chapters thirteenth and fourteenth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Judgments for Whoredom — Idolatry of the People — Desolation of Is- 
rael — Judgment threatened — Israel a Treacherous People — Exhortation 
to Repentance — Reproof of Manifold Sins — Israel threatened — Captivity 
of Israel — Israel's Impiety — Ingratitude to God — Ephraim reproved — 
Ephraim's Glory vanished — Blessings promised. 



Joel. 

A. M. This prophet was a contemporary with Amos and 
Hosea. His book consists of three chapters, which 



may be divided into so many parts, viz. : — 

1. An exhortation to the priests and people to repent, by 
reason of the famine brought upon them by the palmer-worm, 
in consequence of their sins. A denunciation of greater ca- 
lamities, if they continued impenitent, chapter first. 

2. An exhortation to keep a public and solemn fast, with 
a promise of removing the calamities of the people, and an 
effusion of the Holy Spirit, chapter second. 

3. A prediction of their general conversion and return, 
with the destruction of their opponents and the glory of the 
Church, chapter third. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

God's Sundry Judgments — He exhorteth the People to mourn, and pre- 
scribes a Fast — Terribleness of God's Judgments — Exhortation to Ke- 
pentance — The Prophet comforts Zion — Merciful Promises of Restoration 
— God known in Judgment — The Blessings of God upon his Church. 



Amos. 

A. M. This prophet was a native of Tekoa, a small town 
in the kingdom of Judah, about four leagues south 



of Jerusalem. His prophecy consists of three parts, viz. : — 



310 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

1. The judgments of God denounced against the neigh- 
bouring nations, viz. : the Syrians, Philistines, Tyrians, Edom- 
ites, Ammonites, and Moabites, chapters first and second. 

2. The divine judgments denounced against Judah and 
Israel, chapters second to ninth. 

3. Consolatory promises to the Church, describing her 
restoration to the Messiah, chapter ninth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Judgments against Nations bordering upon Palestine — God's Wrath 
against Moab — Judah — Israel — Complains of their Ingratitude — Neces- 
sity of God's Judgments against Israel — Publication of it, with the Causes 
thereof — Israel reproved for Oppression, Idolatry, and Incorrigibleness — 
Lamentation for Israel — Exhortation to Repentance — God rejects their 
Hypocritical Service — Wantonness of Israel — Threatened with Desolation 
— The Judgments of Grasshoppers and Fire diverted by the Prayer of 
Amos — The rejection of Israel symbolized by a Wall and a Plumb-line — 
Amaziah's Complaint of Amos — Amos's Vindication — Amaziah's Judg- 
ment — The Propinquity of Israel's End shown by a Basket of Summer 
Fruit — Oppression reproved — A Famine of the Word threatened — The 
Certainty of the Desolation — Restoration of the Tabernacle of David. 

Obadiah. 

A. M. This prophet was contemporary with Jeremiah, 
one of whose predictions constitutes the greater part 



of this book. This prophecy may be divided into two 
parts, viz. : — 

1. A denunciation of the country of Edom, for its pride 
and security, and for the cruel insults and enmity of the 
Edomites to the Jews, verse tenth to the sixteenth. 

2. Consolatory promises. The restoration of the Jews, 
and their victory over their enemies, verse seventeenth to the 
twenty-first. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Destruction of the Edomites, for their Pride and Carnal Security — Their 
Land made Desolate, because of their Refusal to let Israel pass through 
Idumea — The Total Extinction of the Edomites foretold — The Salvation 
and Victory of Jacob foretold, and the Judgment of Esau. 



BIBLICAL HISTORY - . 311 



Jonah. 



A. M. Jonah was a native of Gath Hepher, in Galilee. 
3317 . 

He is supposed to have prophesied to the ten tribes, 



under the reign of Joash. The design of the book is to 
show, by the very striking example of the Ninevites, the 
divine forbearance and long-suffering towards sinners who 
are spared on their sincere repentance. It consists of two 
parts, viz. : — 

1. Jonah's mission to Nineveh, and his attempt to flee to 
Tarshish. The judgment which fell upon him, chapters first 
to the second. 

2. His mission, and its happy result to the Ninevites, 
chapters third and fourth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Jonah sent to Nineveh — His Flight to Tarshish — Betrayed by a Tem- 
pest — Thrown into the Sea, and swallowed by a Fish — Prayer of Jonah 
— His Deliverance — Sent again to preach to the Ninevites — God averts 
his Wrath on their Repentance — Jonah is reproved for repining at God's 
Mercy in sparing the Ninevites. 

* 

Micah. 

A. M. This prophet was a native of Morasthi, a small 
town in the southern part of the territory of Judah. 



He prophesied in the reigns of Jotham and Hezekiah, and 
was, consequently, contemporary with Isaiah, Joel, Hosea, 
and Amos. His book may be divided into three parts, 
viz. : — 

1. The introduction, or title, chapter first. 

2. Comprises the prophecies delivered in the reign of 
Jotham, in which the divine judgments are denounced 
against both Israel and Judah for their sins, chapter second. 

3. Contains the predictions delivered in the reign of Hez- 
ekiah, chapters fourth, fifth, and seventh. 



312 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

The fifth chapter contains a prediction of the place of the 
Messiah's nativity. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Micah shows the Wrath of God against Idolatry — Exhortation to 
Mourning against Oppression — A Lamentation — A Reproof of Injustice 
and Idolatry — A Promise of Restoration to Jacob — The Cruelty of the 
Princes — Falsehood of the Prophets — Security of both — The Glory, 
Peace, Kingdom, and Victory of the Church — Birth of Christ, his King- 
dom and Conquest — God's Controversy for Unkindness, Ignorance, In- 
justice, and Idolatry — Complaint of the Church, on Account of the Pau- 
city of her Numbers, and the General Corruption — Confidence in God, 
not Man — She triumphs over her Enemies — God comforts her by Prom- 
ises — Confounds her Enemies, and manifests his Mercies. 

JVahum. 

A. M. Nahum was a native of Elkosha, a village in 
3291 

Galilee, and lived between the Assyrian and Baby- 



lonian captivities. He denounced the final and inevitable 
doom of Nineveh, and the Assyrian empire, by the Chalde- 
ans. His prophecy is one entire poem, opening with a sub- 
lime description of the justice and power of God, tempered 
with long-suffering, chapter first, 1-8. He foretells the de- 
struction of the Assyrian empire, (9-12,) together with the 
deliverance of Hezekiah, (13-15.) The destruction of Nin- 
eveh is then predicted, with singular minuteness. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

The Majesty of God revealed in Goodness to his People, and Severity 
to his Enemies— The Fearful and Victorious Armies of God against Nin- 
eveh—The Awful Ruin of Nineveh for its Crimes. 

Hahakhuk. 

A. M. This prophet exercised his office in the reign of 
Jehoiakim, and, consequently, was a contemporary 



with Jeremiah. His book consists of two parts, viz. :- 

1. A dialogue between God and the prophet, in which 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 313 

the Babylonish captivity is announced, with a promise of 
deliverance, and the ultimate destruction of the Babylonian 
empire, chapter first. 

2. Contains the prayer or psalm of the prophet, in which 
he implores God to hasten the deliverance of his people, 
chapter second. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

The Vision of Habakkuk — Complaint of the Iniquity of the Land — 
Fearful Vengeance by the Chaldeans — Complains of the Agency by which 
the Land is desolated — The Prophet is taught to wait for an Answer by 
Faith — Judgment upon the Chaldeans for Insatiableness, Covetousness, 
Cruelty, Drunkenness, and Idolatry — Habakkuk trembles in view of 
God's Majesty — His Confidence in God. 



Zephaniah. 

A. M. This prophet was the son of Cushi, and discharged 
the prophetic office before Josiah had reformed the 



corruptions and abuses of his dominions. His prophecy may 
be divided into four parts, viz. : — 

1. A denunciation against Judah for their idolatry, chapter 
first. 

2. Repentance the only means to avert the divine judg- 
ments, chapter second. 

3. Prophecies against the Philistines, Moabites, Ammon- 
ites, Ethiopia, and Nineveh, chapter second. 

4. The captivity of the Jews, and their future restoration 
and ultimate prosperity, chapter third. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

God's Severe Judgments against Judah for Divers Sins — An Exhorta- 
tion to Repentance — The Judgment of the Philistines — Of Moab, Am- 
nion, Ethiopia, and Assyria — Reproof of Jerusalem for Divers Sins — An 
Exhortation to wait for the Restoration of Israel — Rejoicings for her 
Salvation by God. 

' 14 



314 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE, 

HaggaL 
A. M. This prophet was the first who declared the will 

3484 

of God to the Jews, after their captivity. He en 



couraged them in the work of rebuilding the temple. His 
book may be divided into three parts, viz. : — 

1. A severe reproof for neglecting the rebuilding of the 
temple, chapter first. 

2. Comforts the aged men by assuring them that the 
glory of the latter house should be greater than that of the 
former, chapter second. 

3. Foretells the establishment of Messiah's kingdom, 
chapter second. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Haggai reproves the People for neglecting the Building of God's House 
— Incites them to the Work — Promises God's Assistance — Encourages the 
People in their Work, by Promises of Greater Glory to the Second Temple 
than was in the First — Their Sins hindered the Work, shown by the Type 
of Holy and Unclean Things — God's Promise to Zerubbabel. 



Zechariah. 

A. M. This prophet was contemporary with Haggai, 
'— His book consists of two parts, viz. : — 



1. The restoration of the temple, interspersed with Messi- 
anic predictions, chapters first to the sixth. 

2. Comprises prophecies relating to more remote events, 
viz., the war of the Romans against the Jews, chapters sev- 
enth to the fourteenth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Exhorts to Repentance — The Vision of the Horses — Comfortable Prom- 
ises made to Jerusalem, at the Prayer of the Angel — The Vision of the 
Four Horns and the Four Carpenters — Jerusalem measured — The Redenip- 
tion of Zion — Promise of God's Presence — Restoration of the Church 
shown under the Type of Joshua — Christ promised under the Similitude 
of a Branch — The Good Success of ZerubbabePs Foundation shown by 
the Golden Candlestick — The two Anointed Ones foreshown by the Two 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 315 

Olive-trees — The Curse of Thieves and Swearers shown hy the Vision of 
the Flying Roll — The Final Destruction of Babylon shown by the Pressing 
of a Woman in an Ephah — Vision of the Four Chariots — The Temple and 
Kingdom of the Branch shown by the Crown of Joshua — Inquiry of the 
Captives in regard to Fasting — Sin the Cause of their Captivity — Restora- 
tion of Jerusalem — Encouragement to build by God's Favour shown — 
Good Works required, and Enlargement promised — Defence of the Church 
— Rejoicings for the Coming of Christ — Promised Victory — God, and not 
Idols, to be sought after — Restoration promised — The Destruction of Je- 
rusalem — Howling of the Shepherds, and Spoiling of their Glory — The 
Staves of Beauty and Bands broken by the Rejection of Christ — The Type 
and Curse of a Foolish Shepherd — Jerusalem a Cup of Trembling to her- 
self, and a Burdensome Stone to her Adversaries — The Victorious Resto- 
ration of Judah, and the Signal Interposition of God — Repentance of Je- 
rusalem — Fountain of Purgation for Jerusalem from their Idolatry and 
False Prophecy — The Death of Christ, and the Trial of the Third Part — 
Jerusalem's Destroyers destroyed — Coming of Christ, and the Graces of 
his Kingdom — Plagues on Jerusalem's Enemies — Turning of the Rem- 
nant, and the Sanctification of their Spoil. 

Malachi. 

A. M. This prophet delivered his predictions while Ne- 
hemiah was governor of Judah — more particularly 



after his second coming from the Persian court. The people 
having relapsed into irreligion, the prophet was commissioned 
to reprove them, and also the priests. The book may be 
divided into two parts, viz. : — 

1. Reproof to the Jews for want of reverence to God, their 
benefactor, and judgments denounced therefor, chapters first 
and second. 

2. Foretells the coming of Christ and his harbinger, John, 
to purify the sons of Levi, chapters third and fourth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Malachi complains of Israel's Irreligion, Unkindness, and Profanity — 
Reproves the Priests for neglecting their Covenant with God — Reproves 
the People for Idolatry, Adultery, and Infidelity — The Messenger of 
Christ — The Majesty and Grace of Christ — Rebellion, Sacrilege, and Infi- 
delity of the People — The Promise of Blessings to those that fear God 
and think of his name — God's Judgments on the Wicked, and his Bless- 
ings on the Good— Exhortation to the Study of the Law— The Coming of 
Elijah, and his Office. 



316 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

CHAPTER IV. 
HISTOKICAL BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

Matthew. 

A. M. Matthew, surnamed Levi, was the son of Alpheus, 
— a native of Galilee. Before his conversion to Chris- 



tianity he was a publican, or tax-gatherer, under the Romans, 
and collected the customs of all goods exported or imported 
at Capernaum, a maritime town on the Sea of Galilee, and 
also received the tribute paid by all passengers who went by 
water. "While employed at the receipt of custom, Jesus 
called him to be a witness of his words and works — thus 
conferring upon him the honourable office of an apostle. 
After the ascension of the Saviour he continued at Jerusalem 
with the other apostles, and with them, on the day of Pen- 
tecost, was endued with the gift of the Holy Spirit. He was 
the first of all the evangelists who wrote. His Gospel was 
written in Judea, for the Jewish nation, and designed to con- 
firm Jewish converts in the truth of Christianity. It consists 
of four parts, viz. : — 

1. Treats of the infancy of Jesus Christ, chapters first and 
second. 

2. Records the discourses and actions of John the Baptist 
and of Jesus Christ, preparatory to the commencement of 
the public ministry of the Saviour, chapters third and 
fourth. 

3. Relates the discourses and actions of Christ in Galilee, 
by which he demonstrated that he was the Messiah, chapters 
fourth to the twentieth. 

4. Contains the transactions relative to the passion and 
resurrection of Christ, chapters twentieth to the twenty- 
eighth. 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 317 



SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 



The Genealogy of Christ, from Abraham to Joseph — Conceived by the 
Holy Ghost, and born of the Virgin Mary, when she was espoused to 
Joseph — The Angel satisfies the Mind of Joseph, and interprets the 
Names of Christ — Wise Men from the East are directed to Christ by a 
Star — The Worship of the Magi — Their Offerings of Gold, Frankincense, 
and Myrrh — Joseph's Flight into Egypt with Jesus and his Mother — 
Slaughter of the Children by Herod — Herod's Death — Christ is brought 
back again into Galilee, to Nazareth — The Preaching of John — His Office, 
Life, and Baptism — He reprehends the Pharisees, and baptizes Christ in 
Jordan — Christ's Fast and Temptation in the Wilderness — Angels min- 
ister to him — Dwells in Capernaum — Begins to preach — Calls Peter and 
Andrew, James and John — Heals all Diseases — Sermon on the Mount — 
Declares who are blessed — Who are the Salt of the Earth, the Light of 
the World — Came to fulfil the Law — Its Nature — Exhortation to suffer 
Wrong, love Enemies, and labour for Perfection — Giving of Alms — Prayer 
— Forgiveness — Fasting — Teaches where to lay up our Treasure — Cannot 
serve God and Mammon — Exhortation to seek first the Kingdom of God 
— Reproves Rash Judgment — Things Holy should not be cast to Dogs — 
Exhortation to Prayer, and to enter the Strait Gate — Warns of False 
Prophets — Exhorts to be Doers of the Word, and not Hearers only — Good 
Foundation — Cleanses the Leper — Heals the Centurion's Servant, Peter's 
Mother-in-law, and many others — Shows how he is to be followed — Stills 
the Tempest on the Sea — Drives Devils out of two Men, and suffers them 
to enter the Swine— Cures the Palsy — Calls Matthew — Eats with Publicans 
and Sinners — Defends his Disciples for not Fasting — Cures the Bloody 
Issue — Raises the Daughter of Jai'rus to Life — Gives Sight to two Blind 
Men — Heals a Dumb Man possessed of Devils, and has Compassion on 
the Multitude — Sends out his Twelve Apostles, and gives them Power to 
work Miracles — Gives them their Charge, and promises a Blessing upon 
all who receive them — John sends his Disciples to Christ — Christ's Testi- 
mony concerning John — The Opinion of the People — The Unthankful- 
ness and Impenitency of Chorazin, Bethsaida, and Capernaum — Gospel 
revealed to the Simple — The Burthened invited — Blindness of the Phari- 
sees concerning the Sabbath reproved — The Dumb and Blind Man re- 
stored — Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost not forgiven — Reproves those 
who seek after a Sign, and shows who are his Brother, Sister, and Mother 
— The Parable of the Sower and the Seed, and its Exposition — The Par- 
able of the Tares, Mustard-seed, Leaven, Hidden Treasure, Pearl, and 
Drag-net — Herod's Opinion of Christ — John beheaded — Jesus departs 
into a Desert-place, where he feeds Five Thousand with Five Loaves and 
Two Fishes — Walks on the Sea — Heals the Sick by the Touch of the Hem 
of his Garment — Reproves the Pharisees for transgressing the Command- 
ments by Traditions — Heals the Daughter of the Syro-Phcenician Woman, 
and many others — Feeds Four Thousand with Seven Loaves and a few 



318 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Little Fishes — Pharisees require a Sign — Jesus warns his Disciples against 
the Hypocrisy of the Pharisees and Sadducees— The People's Opinion of 
Christ — Peter's Confession of him — Jesus foreshows his Death, and re- 
proves Peter — Those who will follow him must bear the Cross — Transfig- 
uration of Christ — Heals the Lunatic — Foretells his own Passion, and 
pays Tribute— Warns his Disciples to be Humble, Harmless, avoid Of- 
fences, and not despise Little Ones — Teaches how to deal with our 
Brethren when they offend us, and how often we must forgive them — Il- 
lustrates Forgiveness by a Parable— Heals the Sick— Answers the Phar- 
isees concerning Divorce — Shows when Marriage is necessary— Receives 
Little Children— Instructs the Young Man how to attain Eternal Life, 
and how to be Perfect — Tells his Disciples how hard it is for a Rich Man 
to enter into the Kingdom of Heaven — Promises a Reward to all who 
forsake anything to follow him — Similitude of the Labourers in the Vine- 
yard — Foretells his Passion by answering the Mother of Zebedee's Chil- 
dren — Teaches his Disciples to be Lowly, and restores to Sight two Blind 
Men — Rides in Triumph into Jerusalem — Drives the Buyers and Sellers 
out of the Temple — Curses the Fig-tree — Puts to Silence the Priests and 
Elders — Similitude of the Two Sons and the Husbandmen — Parable 
of the Marriage of the King's Son — The Calling of the Gentiles — The 
Punishment of him who had not on the Wedding Garment — Tribute paid 
to Cesar — Confutes the Sadducees concerning the Resurrection — Answers 
the Lawyer — Admonishes the People not to follow the Examples of the 
Scribes and Pharisees — The Disciples must beware of Ambition — De- 
nounces Eight Woes against Hypocrisy and Blindness — Prophesies the 
Destruction of Jerusalem — Foretells the Destruction of the Temple — 
Preceding Calamities — Signs of his Coming to Judgment — Day and Hour 
unknown — Exhorts to Watchfulness — Parable of the Ten Virgins — Of 
the Talents — Description of the Last Judgment — Rulers conspire against 
Christ — The Woman anoints his Head — Judas sells his Lord — Christ eats 
the Passover — Institutes his Holy Supper — Prays in the Garden — Is be- 
trayed by a Kiss — Carried to Caiaphas — Denied by Peter — Delivered 
bound to Pilate — Judas hangs himself — Pilate, admonished by his Wife, 
washes his Hands — Liberates Barabbas — Christ is crowned with Thorns, 
crucified, reviled, dies, is buried — His Sepulchre is sealed and guarded 
— His Resurrection is declared by an Angel to the Women — He himself 
appears to them — The Chief-priests bribe the Sentinels — Christ appears 
to his Disciples — He sends them to teach and baptize all Nations, and 
promises to be with them to the End of the World. 

Mark. 

A. M. The Hebrew name of this evangelist was John. 
He was the son of Mary, a pious woman who dwelt 



at Jerusalem, and at whose house the apostles and first 
Christians often assembled. He wrote his Gospel at Rome, 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 319 

between the years sixty and sixty-three. It may be divided 
into three parts, viz.: — 

1. The transactions from the baptism of Christ to his en- 
tering on the more public part of his ministry, chapter first. 

2. The discourses and actions of Jesus Christ to his going 
up to Jerusalem to the fourth and last Passover, chapters first 
to the tenth. 

3. The passion, death, and resurrection of Christ, chapters 
eleventh to the fourteenth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

The Office of John the Baptist — Baptism of Jesus — His Temptation — 
His Preaching — Calls his Disciples — Heals one who had a Devil — Heals 
Peter's Wife's Mother, and many others — Cleanses a Leper — Heals one 
sick of the Palsy — Calls Matthew — Eats with Publicans and Sinners — 
Excuses his Disciples from Fasting, and for plucking Ears of Corn on 
the Sabbath — Heals the Withered Hand, and many other Infirmities — 
Rebukes the Unclean Spirits — Chooses his Twelve Apostles — Confutes 
the Pharisees' Blasphemy, and shows who are his Brother, and Sister, 
and Mother — Parable of the Sower, and its Exposition— Must communicate 
the Light of our Knowledge to others — The Parable of the Seed growing 
secretly — Parable of the Mustard-seed — Christ stills the Tempest — De- 
livers the possessed of a Legion of Devils — The Woman healed — Jairus's 
Daughter raised — Christ contemned of his Countrymen — Gives the Twelve 
Power over Unclean Spirits — Divers Opinions of Christ — John beheaded 
and buried — Apostles return from Preaching — Miracle of Five Loaves 
and Two Fishes — Christ walks on the Sea, and heals all who touch him 
— Pharisees find fault with the Disciples for eating with Unwashed 
Hands — They break the Commandments of God by their Traditions — 
Meat defileth no Man — Healing of the Syro-Phcenician's Daughter, and 
one that was Deaf and Dumb — Christ feeds the Multitude miraculously, 
and refuses a Sign to the Pharisees — Admonishes his Disciples to beware 
of the Leaven of the Pharisees — Restores Sight to the Blind — Acknowl- 
edges himself to be the Christ — Exhorts to Patience in Persecution — 
Is transfigured — Instructs his Disciples in regard to the coming of Elias 
— Casts out the Deaf and Dumb Spirit — Foretells his Death and Resur- 
rection — Exhorts to Humility — Must not prohibit those who are not 
against us, nor give Offence to any — Disputes with the Pharisees con- 
cerning Divorce — Blesses Children — Rich Young Man instructed — Dan- 
ger of Riches — Advantage of forsaking anything for Christ — Foretells 
his Death and Resurrection — The Two Ambitious Suitors— Bartimeus 
restored to Sight — Entry into Jerusalem — Fig-tree cursed — Purges the 
Temple— Exhortation to Steadfastness and Forgiveness of Injuries — De- 



320 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

fends the Lawfulness of his Actions by the Witness of John — Parable of 
the Vineyard — Tribute to Cesar — Error of the Sadducees — Answers the 
Scribes — Refutes their Opinions of him — Warns against Ambition and 
Hypocrisy — Commends the Poor Widow — Foretells the Destruction of the 
Temple — Persecutions of the Gospel — Must be preached to all Nations — 
Calamities upon the Jews foretold — Manner of his coming to Judgment 
— The Hour unknown — To watch and pray the Duty of all — Conspiracy 
against Christ — Anointed by a Woman — Judas sells his Master for Money 
— Christ foretells his Betrayal — Passover eaten — Lord's Supper instituted 
— Predicts the Flight of his Disciples, and the Denial of Peter — Judas 
betrays him — Apprehended in the Garden — Falsely accused and impiously 
condemned — Shamefully abused — Denial of Peter — Bound and accused 
before Pilate — Murderer released, and Jesus delivered to be crucified — 
Crowned with Thorns — Spit on and mocked — Faints in bearing his Cross 
— Hanged between Two Thieves — Suffers the reproaches of the Jews, but 
confessed by the Centurion to be the Son of God — Honourably buried by 
Joseph — His Resurrection declared to Three Women — Appears to Mary 
Magdalene — To two others — To the Apostles, whom he sends to preach, 
and afterwards ascendeth to Heaven. 



Luke, 

A. M. Luke was descended from Gentile parents, and 
3999 . 

in youth had embraced Judaism, from which he 



was converted to Christianity. He was, for the most part, 
the companion of the Apostle Paul. His Gospel was written 
about the year sixty-three or sixty-four, for Gentile Christians. 
It may be divided into five parts, viz. : — 

1. Contains a narrative of the birth of Christ, with the 
precedent, attending, and following circumstances, chapters 
first and second. 

2. Comprises the particulars relative to our Saviour's in- 
fancy and youth, chapter second. 

3. Includes the preaching of John, and the baptism of 
Christ, whose genealogy is annexed, chapter third. 

4. Comprehends the discourses, miracles, and actions of 
Jesus Christ, during the whole of his ministry, chapter 
fourth to the ninth. 

5. Begins with chapter ninth, and contains an account of 
our Saviour's last journey to Jerusalem ; consequently, this 
part comprises everything relative to his passion, death, res- 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 321 

urrection, and ascension to heaven, chapter tenth to the 
twenty-fourth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Preface to the Gospel — Conception of John and Christ — Prophecy of 
Elizabeth and Mary — Nativity and Circumcision of John — The Prophecy 
of Zacharias — The Roman Empire taxed — The Birth of Christ related to 
the Shepherds — Circumcision of Christ — Purification of the Virgin Mary 
— Simeon and Anna prophesy of Christ — Christ with the Doctors — Sub- 
ject to his Parents — Preaching and Baptism of John — His Testimony 
of Christ— John imprisoned — Christ baptized — Age and Genealogy of 
Christ, from Joseph to Adam — Temptation and Fasting of Christ — Over- 
comes the Devil — Begins to preach — Cures one possessed of a Devil, 
Peter's Mother-in-law, and divers other Sick Persons — Devils acknowl- 
edge Christ — Preaches through the Cities — Teaches the People out of 
Peter's Ship — Miraculous Draught of Fishes — Cleanses the Leper — Prays 
in the Wilderness — Cures the Palsy — Calls Matthew — Eats with Sinners 
— Foretells the Fastings and Afflictions of his Disciples, after his Ascen- 
sion — Parable of Worn Garments and Old Bottles — Reproves the Phari- 
sees about the Sabbath, by Scripture, Reason, and Miracle — Chooses 
Twelve Apostles — Heals the Diseased — Preaches to his Disciples before 
the People — Blessings and Curses — Obedience of Faith — Constancy — ■ 
Great Faith of the Centurion Gentile — Raises the Widow's Son at Nain 
— Answers John's Messengers — His Opinion of John — Denounces the 
Jews for their Unbelief — Mary Magdalene — Women minister to Christ — 
Parable of the Sower and the Candle — Declares who are his Mother and 
Brethren — Rebukes the Winds — Casts out a Legion of Devils — Is rejected 
of the Gadarenes — Heals the Woman, and raises Jairus's Daughter — 
Sends his Apostles to work Miracles and preach — Herod desires to see 
him — Feeds Five Thousand — Inquires what Opinion the World had of 
him — Foretells his Passion — Proposes a Pattern of Patience — Transfigu- 
ration — Cures the Lunatic — Commends Humility — Divers would follow 
him, on their own Conditions — Sends out Seventy Disciples to preach — 
Admonishes them wherein to rejoice — Thanks his Father for his Grace 
— Magnifies the Happy Estate of the Church — Instructs the Lawyer — 
Reprehends Martha, and commends Mary — Teaches Instant Prayer — 
Casts out a Dumb Devil — Rebukes the Blasphemy of the Pharisees — 
Shows who are blessed — Preaches to the People — Reprehends the out- 
ward show of Holiness in the Scribes and Pharisees — Preaches to his 
Disciples to avoid Hypocrisy and Fearfulness in publishing his Doctrine 
— Warns the People to beware of Covetousness, by the Parable of the 
Rich Farmer — Ready to give Alms — Christ's Ministers must see to their 
Charge — Look for Persecution — People must improve the Time of Grace 
— Fearful Thing to die without Reconciliation — Repentance preached 
upon the Punishment of the Galileans — The Fruitless Fig-tree may not 

14* 



322 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

stand — Christ heals the Crooked Woman — Shows the Powerful Working 
of his Word by the Parable of the Grain of Mustard-seed and the Leaven 
— Exhorts to enter in at the Strait Gate — Reproves Herod and Jerusalem 
— Heals the Dropsy on the Sabbath — Teaches Humility — Teaches to 
feast the Poor — Parable of the Great Supper — Must count the Cost in 
becoming Christians — Backsliders like Salt that hath lost its Savour — 
Parable of the Lost Sheep— The Piece of Silver— The Prodigal Son— The 
Unjust Steward — Hypocrisy of the Pharisees reproved — The Rich Man, 
and Lazarus the Beggar — Occasions of Offence to be avoided — One 
must forgive another — Power of Faith — Our Obligations to God — Christ 
heals Ten Lepers — The Coming of the Son of Man — The Unfortunate 
Widow — The Pharisee and Publican — Children brought to Christ — A 
Ruler that would follow Christ, but is hindered by his Riches — The Re- 
ward of those who would leave all for his Sake — Foretells his Death — 
Restores a Blind Man to Sight — Zaccheus, a Publican — The Ten Pieces of 
Money — Triumphant Entry into Jerusalem — Weeps over the City — Purges 
the Temple — Teaches in it daily — Rulers desire to destroy him — Declares 
his Authority by John's Baptism — Parable of the Vineyard — Tribute to 
Cesar — Sadducees convinced — Christ the Son of David — Warns his Disci- 
ples to beware of the Scribes — Commends the Poor Widow — Foretells the 
Destruction of the City and Temple — Signs before the Last Day — Exhort- 
ation to Watchfulness — Jews conspire against him — Judas prepared by 
the Devil to oetray him — Passover — Holy Supper — Warning against 
Ambition — Promise to Peter — Prays in the Garden, and sweats Blood — Is 
betrayed — Heals Malchus's Ear — Denied of Peter Three Times — Shame- 
fully abused — Confesses himself to be the Son of God — Accused before 
Pilate, and sent to Herod — Herod mocks him — Herod and Pilate make 
Friends — Barabbas loosed, and Christ sent to Crucifixion — He tells the 
Women that lament him of the Destruction of Jerusalem — Prays for his 
Enemies — Two Evil-doers crucified with him — His Death and Burial — 
His Resurrection declared by Two Angels — Appears himself to the Two 
Disciples, on the Way to Emmaiis — Appears to the Apostles — Gives them 
a Charge — Promises the Holy Ghost, and ascends to Heaven. 



John, 

A. M. Saint John, trie evangelist and apostle, was the 
4033 . . 

son of Zebedee. He was eminently the object of 



our Lord's regard and confidence, and was, on various occa- 
sions, admitted to free and intimate intercourse with him — 
so much so that he was characterized as that disciple whom 
Jesus loved. He wrote his Gospel about the year ninety- 
seven. 

The general design of John, in common with the rest of 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 323 

the evangelists, was to prove that Jesus was the Messiah, the 
Son of God. Besides this, there were two special motives 
that induced him to compose his Gospel. One was, to sup- 
ply those important events in our Saviour's life which had 
been omitted by the other evangelists — the other was that 
he might refute the heresies of Cerinthus and the Nicolaitans, 
who had attempted to corrupt the Christian doctrine. Of 
the Nicolaitans nothing certain is known ; but concerning 
Cerinthus we have the following : — He was a Jew, and had 
studied literature and philosophy at Alexandria. He attempt- 
ed to construct a new system of religion, by combining the 
doctrines of Jesus Christ with the opinions and errors of the 
Jews and Gnostics. From the latter he borrowed their ple- 
roma, or fulness — their ceons, or spirits — their demiurgus, 
or creator of the visible world. He taught that the Most 
High God was utterly unknown before the appearance of 
Christ, and dwelt in a remote heaven called pleroma, with 
the chief spirits, or ceons : that this Supreme God generated 
an only-begotten son, Monogenes, who again begat the Word, 
Logos, which was inferior to the first-born : that Christ was 
a still lower ceon, though far superior to some others : that 
there were two higher ceons, distinct from Christ, — one called 
Zoe, or life ; and the other, Phos, or the light : that from the 
aeons again proceeded inferior orders of spirits, particularly 
one, Demiurgus, who created this visible world out of eternal 
matter : that this Demiurgus was ignorant of the Supreme 
God, and much lower than the seons, which were wholly in- 
invisible : that he was, however, the peculiar God and pro- 
tector of the Israelites, and sent Moses to them, whose laws 
were to be of perpetual obligation : that Jesus was a mere 
man, of the most illustrious sanctity and justice — the real 
son of Joseph and Mary : that the aeon, Christ, descended 
upon him in the form of a dove, when he was baptized, re- 
vealed to him the unknown Father, and empowered him to 
work miracles: that the seon, light, entered John the Bap- 
sist in the same manner, and, therefore, that John was, in 



324 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

some respects, preferable to Christ: that Jesus, after his 
union with Christ, opposed himself with vigour to the God 
of the Jews, at whose instigation he was seized and crucified 
by the Jews ; and that, when Jesus was taken captive, and 
came to suffer, Christ ascended up on high, so that the man 
Jesus, alone, was subjected to the pains of an ignominious 
death : that Christ will again return, and, renewing his 
union with the man Jesus, will reign in Palestine one thou- 
sand years, during which time his disciples will enjoy the 
most exquisite sensual delights. John's Gospel is divided 
into three parts, viz. : — 

1. Contains doctrines in opposition to those of Cerinthus, 
chapter first. 

2. A proof of those doctrines, in an historical manner, chap- 
ters first to the twentieth. 

3. Conclusion, or appendix, chapter twentieth to the 
twenty-first. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

The Divinity, Humanity, and Office of Jesus Christ — The Testimony 
of John — The Calling of Andrew, Peter, et. al. — Christ turns Water into 
"Wine — Goes to Capernaum and Jerusalem — Cleanses the Temple — Fore- 
tells his Death and Resurrection — Many believe, because of his Miracles 
— Christ teaches Nicodemus the Necessity of Kegeneration — The Great 
Love of God to the World — Condemnation for Unbelief — The Baptism, 
Witness, and Doctrine of John, concerning Christ — Christ talks with a 
Woman of Samaria — His Disciples marvel — Declares his Zeal for God's 
Glory — Many Samaritans believe on him — Goes to Galilee, and heals the 
Ruler's Son, at Capernaum — Cures a Man who had been diseased Thirty- 
eight Years — Jews cavil because he did it on the Sabbath — He answers, 
and presents Testimony of himself — Feeds Five Thousand — The People 
desire to make him a King — He walks on the Sea — Keproves the People 
— Declares himself the Bread of Life to True Believers — Many depart 
from him — Peter confesses him — Judas is a Devil — Jesus reproves the 
Ambition and Boldness of his Kinsman — Goes from Galilee to the Feast 
of Tabernacles — Teaches in the Temple — Opinions concerning him — 
Pharisees are Angry because he was not taken by their Officers — Nico- 
demus takes his Part — Christ delivers the Woman taken in Adultery — 
Proclaims himself the Light of the World — Answers the Jews who boasted 
of Abraham — Restores Sight to the Blind — The Pharisees are offended 
at it, and cast the Blind Man out of the Synagogue — Christ is the Door 
and the Good Shepherd—Proves by his Works that he is the Son of God 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 325 

— Escapes the Jews, and goes beyond Jordan, where many believe on 
him — Raises Lazarus from the Dead — Many Jews believe — Chief-priests 
and Pharisees conspire against him — Prophecy of Caiaphas — Jesus hides 
himself — They inquire for him at the Passover — Excuses Mary for anoint- 
ing his Feet — People flock to see Lazarus — Chief-priests consult to kill 
him — Triumphant Entry into Jerusalem — Greeks desire to see Jesus — 
He foretells his Death — Jews generally blinded — Many Rulers believe, 
but do not confess him — He washes his Disciples' Feet — Exhorts them to 
Humility and Charity — Foretells the Betrayal of Judas — Commands 
them to love one another, and warns Peter of his Denial — Comforts his 
Disciples with a Hope of Heaven — Professes himself the Way, the Truth, 
and the Life, and One with the Father — Asks for Love and Obedience 
— Promises the Holy Ghost — Leaves his Peace with them — Parable of the 
Vine — Comfort in the Hatred and Persecutions of the World — The Office 
of the Holy Ghost — Office of the Apostles — Comfort to the Disciples, in 
view of Persecution — Peace in the Lord, though in the World Tribula- 
tion — Christ prays to the Father to preserve the Apostles in Unity and 
Truth, and to glorify them, and all other Believers — Judas betrays him 
— The Officers fall to the Ground — Peter cuts off Malchus's Ear — Christ 
is taken — Peter denies him — Examined before Caiaphas — Before Pilate 
— His Kingdom — Barabbas loosed— Christ scourged, crowned with Thorns, 
and beaten — Pilate delivers him to be crucified — Lots cast for his Gar- 
ments — Commends his Mother to John — He dies — Is pierced — Buried by 
Joseph and Nicodemus — Mary comes to the Sepulchre — Peter and John 
also — Jesus appears to Mary — Incredulity and Confession of Thomas — 
The Scripture sufficient to Salvation — Appears again to his Disciples, 
and is known by the Great Draught of Fishes — Dines with them, and 
gives Charge to Peter — Rebukes his Curiosity. 

Acts of the Apostles. 

A. M. This book is a postscript to the Gospels, and an 
introduction to the Epistles. It was written by 



Saint Luke, about the year sixty-three, and may be divided 
into three parts, viz. : — 

1. Contains the rise and progress of the mother Church, 
at Jerusalem, from the time of our Saviour's Ascension to 
the first Jewish persecution, chapter first to the eighth. 

2. The dispersion of the disciples, the propagation of 
Christianity among the Samaritans, the conversion of Saint 
Paul, and the foundation of a Christian Church at Antioch, 
chapter eighth to the twelfth. 

3. The conversion of the more remote Gentiles, by Bar- 



326 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

nabas and Paul, and his associates, chapter thirteenth to the 
twenty-eighth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Christ prepares his Apostles to behold his Ascension — Commands them 
to wait at Jerusalem for the Gift of the Holy Ghost — Warned by Two 
Angels to depart — Return and give themselves to Prayer — Day of Pente- 
cost — Apostles filled with the Holy Ghost — Speak all Languages — Peter 
preaches — A Great Number converted and baptized — Apostles work 
Miracles — Church daily increases in Numbers — A Lame Man healed — Pe- 
ter preaches — Exhorts to Repentance and Faith in the Lord Jesus, for 
the Remission of Sins — The Rulers offended at Peter's Sermon — Peter 
and John imprisoned, and commanded no more to teach in the Name of 
Jesus — Church resorts to Prayer — The Place moved where they were as- 
sembled — Ananias and Sapphira struck dead for Lying — The Apostles are 
again imprisoned, but are delivered by an Angel — Gamaliel's Intercession 
— Apostles are beaten, but they glorify God, and cease not Preaching — 
Provide for the Poor by the Appointment of Deacons — Stephen falsely 
accused of Blasphemy — Answers to the Accusation — He is stoned to 
Death — Prays for his Murderers, and commends his Soul to Jesus — 
Church in Samaria — Philip's Preaching —Simon the Sorcerer — Peter and 
John confirm the Church, by the Imposition of Hands, and the Gift of 
the Holy Ghost — Simon covets the Power of the Apostles — The Angel 
sends Philip to teach and baptize the Ethiopian Eunuch — Saul, on his 
Way to Damascus, is stricken to the Earth, and called to the Apostleship 
— Baptized by Ananias — Preaches Christ boldly — The Jews lie in wait 
to kill him — So, also, the Grecians — The Church having Rest, Peter heals 
Eneas of Palsy, and restores Tabitha to Life — Cornelius sends for Peter 
— Peter, in a Vision, is taught not to despise the Gentiles — He preaches 
Christ to Cornelius — The Holy Ghost falls on them, and they are bapti- 
zed — Peter is accused for going to the Gentiles — Makes his Defence — 
Barnabas sent to confirm the Disciples at Phenice, Antioch, and Cyprus 
— The Disciples called Christians — They send Relief to Brethren in 
Judea, in the Time of Famine — Herod kills James, and imprisons Peter 
— In his Pride he is smitten of God, and dies — After his Death the Word 
of God prospers — Paul and Barnabas chosen to go to the Gentiles — Ser- 
gius Paulus, and Elymas the Sorcerer — Paul preaches at Antioch — The 
Gentiles believe, but the Jews gainsay and blaspheme — They turn to the 
Gentiles — Those ordaine to Life believed — Paul and Barnabas persecu- 
ted at Iconium — At Lystra Paul heals a Cripple — Paul is stoned — Pass 
through Divers Churches, confirming the Disciples, and return to Anti- 
och — Great Dissension about Circumcision — The Apostles consult about 
it, and send their Decision to the Churches — Paul and Barnabas separate 
— Paul circumcises Timothy — Baptizes Lydia — Dispossesses the Damsel 
of the Evil Spirit — He and Silas are whipped and imprisoned — Prison 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 32*7 

Doors are opened — Jailer is converted, and they are set at Liberty — Paul 
preaches at Thessalonica — Is sent to Berea, and preaches there — Goes to 
Athens — Preaches, and many are converted — Preaches at Corinth to the 
Gentiles — Encouraged in a Vision— Accused before Gallio — Passing from 
City to City, he strengthens the Disciples — Apollos preaches Christ — The 
Holy Ghost given by Paul's Hands — The Jews blaspheme his Doctrine, 
which is confirmed by Miracles — Jewish Exorcists — Conjuring Books 
burned — Demetrius's Opposition to Paul — Town-clerk interposes— Paul 
goes to Macedonia — Celebrates the Lord's Supper — Eutychus restored to 
Life— Paul at Miletus — Calls the Elders of the Church — Commits the 
Flock to them — Warns them of False Teachers — Commends them to God 
in Prayer — Goes to Jerusalem — Philip's Daughters — Paul is apprehended 
at Jerusalem — Permitted to speak for himself — Declares how he was 
converted — Clamour raised against him — Claims the Privilege of a Ro- 
man Citizen — While pleading his Cause, Ananias commands him to be 
smitten — Dissension among his Accusers — God encourages him — He is 
sent to Felix, the Governor — Tertullus accuses Paul — He answers for 
himself — Preaches Christ to the Governor and his Wife, and is left in 
Prison — The Jews accuse him before Festus — Answers, and appeals to 
Cesar — Before King Agrippa — Declares his Life and Wonderful Conver- 
sion — Ships for Borne — Foretells the Danger of the Voyage — Shipwrecked 
— All saved — Entertained by the Barbarians at Malta — A Viper fastens 
on his Hand — He heals many, and departs for Koine — Resides and 
preaches there Two Years. 



CHAPTER V. 
DOCTRINAL BOOKS. 

- Epistle to the Romans. 

A. M. This epistle was written by the Apostle Paul, 
'— about the year fifty-eight. The design of the apos- 
tle in writing it was to comfort the converts at Rome, in the 
midst of their trials, and reconcile the differences among 
them, arising from the early prejudices of the Jewish and 
Gentile converts, in regard to certain rites. 
It may be divided into four parts, viz. : — 

1. The introduction, chapter first, 1-13. 

2. The doctrinal part of the epistle, concerning justifica- 
tion, chapters first and second, to the eleventh, 



328 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

3. Comprises the hortatory, or practical part, chapter 
twelfth to the fifteenth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Paul commends his Calling to the Romans — He shows that the Gospel 
is for the Justification of Men, through Faith — They that sin, though 
they condemn it in others, have no Excuse for themselves — Gentiles and 
Jews in like Condemnation — The Jews' Prerogative — The Law convinces 
them of Sin — No Flesh justified by the Law — Justification by Faith only 
— The Law not abolished — Abraham's Faith imputed to him for Right- 
eousness — By Faith he received the Promise— Abraham the Father of all 
that believe — Our Faith imputed for Righteousness — Being justified by 
Faith, we have Peace with God — We are reconciled by the Death of 
Christ — Sin and Death came by Adam — Righteousness and Life by Jesus 
Christ — Grace more abundant than Sin — We may not live in Sin who 
are dead to it — Sin must not reign in us, for Death is the Result — No 
Law has Power over Man when he is dead — We are dead to the Law 
— The Law is not Sinful, but Holy, Just, and Good — Those who are in 
Christ, and live according to the Spirit, are Free from Condemnation — 
The Harm that comes of the Flesh, and the Good of the Spirit — Privi- 
lege of being God's Children — Nothing can sever us from the Love of 
God — Paul's Sorrow for the Jews — All the Seed of Abraham not the 
Children of Promise — The Calling of the Gentiles, and the Rejection of 
the Jews — The Reason why so few Jews embraced Righteousness by' 
Faith — The Scriptures show the Difference between the Righteousness 
of the Law and that of Faith— Jews and Gentiles saved by Faith — Israel 
was not Ignorant of these Things — God has not cast off Israel — Some 
were elected, though the Rest were hardened — There is Hope of their 
Conversion — The Gentiles may not insult them — God's Judgments are 
Unsearchable — God's Mercies must move us to please him — None must 
think too highly of himself — Duties required of us — Revenge forbidden 
— Obedience to Rulers enjoined — Love is the Fulfilling of the Law — 
Gluttony, Drunkenness, and Works of Darkness, are out of Season in the 
Time of the Gospel — Men must not be condemned for Things indifferent 
— We must not give Offence — The Strong must bear the Weak — Must 
not please ourselves — Imitate Christ — Paul excuses his Writing, prom- 
ises to see them, and asks their Prayers — Desires the Brethren to greet 
many — Advises them to take heed of those who cause Dissensions — Ends 
with Praise to God. 

First Epistle to the Corinthians. 

A. M. This epistle was written from Ephesus, in the 
4060. 



year fifty-seven. The Corinthian Church consisted 
partly of Jews, and partly of Gentiles ; and hence the apostle 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 329 

had to combat Jewish prejudices and heathen licentiousness. 
The peace of this Church was disturbed by the intrusion of 
false teachers. Strifes arose among the disciples, and parties 
were formed affecting the unity of the Church. The design 
of this epistle was to correct the errors and abuses which 
had crept in during his absence. It may be divided into 
three parts, viz. : — 

1. The introduction, chapter first, 1-9. 

2. A discussion of various particulars adapted to the state 
of the Corinthian Church, chapters first to the sixth, and 
fifteenth. 

3. Conclusion, containing various exhortations and direc- 
tions, chapter sixteenth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

After his Salutation and Thanksgiving, he exhorts them to Unity, and 
reproves their Dissensions — The Wisdom of the "Wise destroyed by the 
Foolishness of Preaching — Paul's Manner of Preaching the Gospel, and 
its Design — Strife and Division are Arguments of a Fleshly Mind — He 
that plants, and he that waters, Nothing — Ministers are God's Co-labour- 
ers — Christ the only Foundation — How to account of God's Ministers — 
Paul's Afflicted State — The Incestuous Person — The Old Leaven is to be 
purged out — Heinous Offenders to be shunned — Going to Law with 
Brethren — Unrighteous shut out of Heaven — Our Bodies Members of 
Christ — Temples of the Holy Ghost, and must not be denied — Marriage 
a Remedy for Fornication — Every Man must be content with his Voca- 
tion — Virginity wherefore to be embraced — Reasons for marrying and 
not marrying — Abstinence from Meats offered to Idols — Must not abuse 
our Christian Liberty — Subject our Knowledge to Charity-^Paul shows 
his Liberty, and how Ministers should live by the Gospel — Life compared 
to a Race — The Sacrament of the Jews — Punishments are Examples — 
Idolatry — Table of the Lord must not be perverted — Things indifferent 
— Reproof for Men appearing in Holy Assemblies with the Head covered, 
and Women with their Heads uncovered — Profaning the Lord's Supper 
with their Feasts — Exhortation — Spiritual Gifts are diverse, and to that 
End were diversely bestowed — Unity of the Members of the Body — The 
Excellence of Charity — Speaking, Praying, and Giving of Thanks, in an 
Unknown Tongue — Arguments in Proof of the Resurrection of the Dead 
— The Manner of the Resurrection — The Apostle commends Timothy — 
Salutation. 



330 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 



Second Epistle to the Corinthians. 

A. M. This epistle was written from Philippi, in Mace- 
'— donia, within a year after the preceding. It is vin- 



dicatory and commendatory, and consists of three parts, 
viz. : — 

1. The introduction, chapter first, 1, 2. 

2. The apologetic discourse, chapters second to the seventh, 
eighth, and ninth, and tenth to the thirteenth. 

3. The conclusion, chapter thirteenth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Corinthians encouraged to put their Confidence in God — Paul's Excuse 
for visiting Corinth—Ministration of the Law and the Gospel— Tribulations 
of the Apostles — Doctrine of the General Judgment — Ministry of Recon- 
ciliation — Paul's Faithfulness in the Ministry — Exhortation to Purity of 
Life — Liberality of the Macedonians — Exhortation to Liberality — Titus 
and others commended — Paul vindicates his Person and Ministry — His 
Concern for the Corinthians — Character of False Apostles — Paul glories 
in his Affliction — His Fear for the Corinthians — Exhortation to Self-ex- 
amination. 

Epistle to the Galatians. 

A. M. This epistle was written from Corinth, about the 
4056 . 

latter part of the year fifty-two. The design of the 



apostle in writing it was to assert his authority as a teacher,, 
and the doctrines he taught in opposition to the erroneous 
teachings of others, and to confirm the Church in the princi- 
ples of Christianity. It consists of three parts, viz. : — 

1. The introduction, chapter first, 1-5. 

2. The discussion of the subjects which occasioned the 
epistle, chapters first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth. 

3. Conclusion, consisting of a summary of the topics dis- 
cussed, chapter sixth. 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 331 



SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 



Paul's Concern for their having left him and the Gospel — His Accusa- 
tion against those who preach any other Gospel — Gives his Reasons for 
going to Jerusalem — His Conduct while there — The Foolishness of the 
Galatians — The Law not in Opposition to the Promises — Paul's Remem- 
brance of the Galatians — Exhortation to abide in Christian Liberty — An 
Enumeration of the Fruits of the Spirit — Procedure against Offenders — 
Liberality to Teachers enjoined — Paul's Glorying in Christ. 

Epistle to the Ephesians, 

A. M. This epistle was written about the year sixty-one, 
and its design was to guard the converts at Ephesus 



against the heathen practices and customs of that rich and 
voluptuous city, and to urge them to walk in a manner be- 
coming the gospel of Christ. 



SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Salutations — Doctrine of Election and Adoption a Great Mystery — Char- 
acter and Conversion of the Ephesians — The Manner of Edifying the 
Church — Salvation of the Gentiles revealed — Exhortation to Unity of 
Spirit — Exhortation to Holiness, and to avoid all Bitterness and Wrath 
— Husbands commanded to love their Wives — Duty of Children to Pa- 
rents, Servants to Masters, and Masters to Servants. 



Epistle to the Philippians, 

A. M. This epistle was written about the end of the 
year sixty -two. Its design was to confirm the Philip- 



pians in the faith of the gospel, and to guard them against 
Judaizing teachers, who preached Christ through envy and 
strife. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Paul testifies his Gratitude to God, and his Love for his Philip- 
pian Brethren — His Exhortation to Love, Unity, Humility, and a 
Careful Walk in the Way of Salvation — His Earnestness in the Chris- 
tian Course — An Exhortation to walk in his Steps — Commendation for 
their Liberality — His Confidence in the Providence of God — Commends 
the Philippians — Salutations. 



332 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Epistle to the Colossians. 
A. M. This and the preceding epistle bear a strong re- 
semblance. Its design is to show that all hope of 



man's redemption is founded on Christ our Redeemer, and 
to caution the Colossians against the insinuations of Judaiz- 
ing teachers, philosophical conceits, and human traditions 



SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 



Paul thanks God for their Faith — Prays for their Increase in Grac 
Describes the Nature and Office of Christ — Shows how he preached 
Christ— Exhortation to Steadfastness — To beware of Philosophy and Vain 
Traditions — Worshipping of Angels, and Legal Ceremonies — Shows where 
Christ should be sought — Exhorts to Mortification — To put off the Old 
Man and put on Christ — Exhortation to Charity and Humility — Fervency 
in Prayer — Deportment towards those without — Salutes them, and wishes 
them all Prosperity. 

First Epistle to the Thessalonians. 
A. M. The first epistle to the Thessalonians was the first 
of all the apostles' writings. Its date is about the 



. 



year fifty-two. It was written to confirm the faith of the 
Church, and animate its members to all holy conversation. 
It may be divided into four parts, viz. : — 

1. The miracles wrought by the first preachers, in attesta- 
tion of their divine commission, chapter first. 

2. The truth of the gospel sustained by character, chap- 
ters second and third. 

3. The gospel shown to be worthy of God, by the sanctity 
of its precepts, chapter fourth. 

4. The resurrection of Christ from the dead establishes his 
claims as the Son of God and the Judge of the world, chap- 
ters fourth and fifth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Paul's Regard for them at All Times — His Belief in their Faith and 
Sincerity — The Manner in which the Gospel was brought and preached 
to them — Reasons of his Long Absence — His Great Regard for them— 
Exhortation to Holiness — Moderate their Sorrow for the Dead — The 
Coming of Christ to Judgment — Divers Precepts given — Greetings. 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 333 



Second Epistle to the Thessalonians, 

A. M. This epistle was written soon after the first, and 
its design was to rectify the mistake into which the 



Thessalonians had fallen, in supposing that the former epistle 
taught that the day of judgment was just at hand. It con- 
sists of five parts, viz. : — 

1. The inscription, chapter first. 

2. St. Paul's thanksgiving and prayer for them, chapter 
first. 

3. The rectification of their mistake, and the man of sin, 
chapter second. 

4. Various advices relative to Christian virtue, chapter 
third. 

5. The conclusion, chapter third. 



SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Commendation for their Faith, Love, and Patience — Reasons for Com- 
fort in Persecution — Steadfastness in the Truth — Apostasy predicted — 
Discovery of Antichrist — Exhorts and prays for them — His Confidence 
in them — Asks their Prayers in his Behalf — Gives Divers Precepts, espe- 
cially to shun Idleness and Vain Company — Concludes with Prayer and 
Salutation. 



First Epistle to Timothy, 

A. M. This epistle was written about the year sixty-four. 
Its design was to instruct Timothy in the choice of 



proper officers in the Church, as well as in the exercise of a 
well-ordered ministry ; as well as to caution him against the 
influence of false teachers, and urge him to zeal and fidelity 
in the sacred office. It consists of three parts, viz. : — 

1. The introduction, chapter first, 1, 2. 

2. Instructions to Timothy, chapter second to the sixth. 

3. Conclusion, chapter sixth. 



334 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 



SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS. 

Timothy is reminded of his Charge — The Eight Use and End of the 
Law — Paul's Vocation— Hymeneus and Alexander — Prayer should he 
offered for All — The Dress of Women — Not permitted to teach — They 
shall be saved if they continue in the Faith — Qualifications of Bishops, 
Deacons, and their Wives — The Church and the Blessed Truth taught 
therein — Paul foretells a Departure from the Faith — Divers Precepts — 
Rules to he observed in Reproving — Widows — Elders — Timothy's Health 
— Some Men's Sins go before to Judgment — Duty of Servants — Gain of 
Godliness — Love of Money — Exhortation to flee Youthful Lusts, and fol- 
low after Charity — Contentment enjoined — Admonitions. 

Second Epistle to Timothy. 
A. M. The design of this epistle was to acquaint Timo- 

A f\CKCk 

thy with the writer's circumstances, and request 



him to come to Rome. It contains a variety of advices rela- 
tive to the Church, and to himself — exhorting him to stead- 
fastness in the gospel. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Paul's Love to Timothy — His Mother and Grandmother — Exhortation 
to stir up the Gift within him — Steadfastness in Faith and Doctrine 
recommended — Phygellus and Hermogenes — Onesiphorus — Exhorted to 
Fidelity, and to shun Babblings — Hymeneus and Philetus — The Sure 
Foundation of God — In what Manner he should behave — Informed of 
the Times to come — Paul describes to him the Enemies of the Truth- 
Exhibits his own Example, and commends the Holy Scriptures — Informs 
him of his Near Approach to Death — Desires him to come speedily, and 
bring Mark — Warns him of Alexander — Benediction. 

Epistle to Titus. 

A. M. Titus was left in Crete, to settle the Churches in 
4069 . . . 
— the several cities on that island. The Epistle was 

written to assist him in this work. It consists of three parts, 

viz. : — 

1. The inscription, chapter first. 

2. Instruction concerning the ordination of elders, and 
directions in regard to advice to the respective ages and 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 335 

sexes. Obedience to the civil magistrate, chapters second 
and third. 

3. An invitation to visit the writer, &c, chapter third. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Paul's Statement of his Character, his Hope, and his Office — His Ad- 
dress to Titus, and his Reason for leaving him at Crete — Qualifications 
of Elders and Bishops — False Teachers — Character of the Cretans — The 
Pure and the Impure — False Professors — Directions to Aged Men — Aged 
Women — Young Women — Relative to his own Conduct — To Servants — 
What the Gospel of the Grace of God teaches All Men — Glorious Pros- 
pect held out by it — Salvation from all Sin, and Final Glory — Directions 
concerning Teaching— Rejection of Obstinate Heretics — Appoints the 
Time of his Coming to him. 



Epistle to Philemon. 

A. M. Philemon was a citizen of Colosse, and an opu- 
lent Christian. The design of this epistle is to re- 



commend Onesimus, his former runaway slave, but now 
converted Christian, to his master, and induce him to receive 
and treat him as such. 



SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Paul rejoices to hear of the Faith and Love of Philemon — Desires him 
to receive Onesimus, his Slave, and treat him as a Brother — Salutations. 



Epistle to the Hebrews. 

A. M. The Hebrews were Jewish Christians, resident in 
Palestine. This epistle was written about the year 



sixty-two. The design of the apostle in writing this letter 
was to show the deity of Jesus Christ, and the excellency of 
his gospel, when compared with the institutions of Moses ; 
and to prevent the Hebrew converts from relapsing into 
those rites and ceremonies which were now abolished, and 
were totally insufficient to produce reconciliation with God. 
It was also designed to show the nature, efficacy, and tri- 



336 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

umph of faith, by which saints of all ages had been accepted 
of God. It consists of three parts, viz. : — 
• 1. Demonstrates the divinity of Christ, by the declara- 
tions of Scripture, and his superiority over angels and men, 
chapters first to the ninth. 

2. Comprises the application of the preceding arguments 
and proofs, chapters tenth to the thirteenth. 

3. The conclusion, containing a prayer for the Hebrews, 
and apostolical salutations, chapter thirteenth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Christ preferred above Angels, both in Person and Office — Obedience 
to Christ — Took upon himself our Nature — More Worthy than Moses — 
We shall, in rejecting him, be more Guilty than the Jews — Christian Rest 
attained by Faith— The Power of God's Word— The Son of God, our 
High-priest, subject to Infirmities, but not to Sin — Boldness in approach- 
ing the Throne of Grace — Authority and Honour of our Saviour's Priest- 
hood — Negligence in the Knowledge thereof reproved — Exhortation not 
to fall back from the Faith — Diligence and Faith in the Work of Salva- 
tion — God's Promise — Christ a Priest after the Order of Melchisedec — 
More Excellent than the Priests of Aaron's Order — Levitical Priesthood 
abolished — Description of the Rites and Sacrifices of the Law — The Sac- 
rifice of Christ— The Sacrifice of Christ's Body— One Offering— Exhorta- 
tion to hold fast the Faith, with Patience and Thanksgiving — Definition 
of Faith — Without Faith God cannot be pleased— Fruits of Faith — Ex- 
hortation to Constancy in Faith — New Testament above the Old — Ad- 
monitions to Charity, and Divers Other Graces — Obedience to Governors 
— Prayer for Ministers — The Conclusion — Salutation. 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 337 

CHAPTER VI. 
EPISTOLARY BOOKS. 

JEpistle of James, 

A. M. James was distinguished as one of the apostles of 
the circumcision, and, soon after the death of Ste- 



phen, was appointed president of the Christian Church at 
Jerusalem. On account of his distinguished piety, he was 
surnamed the Just. This epistle was written about the year 
sixty-one. The persons to whom it was addressed were He- 
brew Christians, who were in danger of falling into those 
sins which abounded among the Jews at that time. It di- 
vides itself into three parts, without the introduction, viz. : — 

1. Contains exhortations to patience, humility, and suit- 
able dispositions to receive the word of God aright, chapter 
first. 

2. Condemnation of various sinful practices and erroneous 
opinions in regard to the doctrine of justification, chapters 
second to the fifth. 

3. Comprises various exhortations and cautions, chapters 
fifth to the seventh. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Rejoicing under the Cross— Prayer for Wisdom from God in Trials — 
Not to impute our Weakness or Sins to God — Not to regard the Rich, and 
despise the Poor — Any One Breach of the Law involves Guilt — Faith 
•without Works is dead — Rash Reproof condemned — Government of the 
Tongue — True Wisdom — Cause of Contention — How to overcome Lusts, 
and gain God's Favour — Warnings of God's Judgments — Patience — 
Prayer in Adversity — Labours for the Conversion of Sinners. 

First Epistle of Peter. 



A^M. Simon, surnamed Cephas, or Peter, was the son 

pisi 
15 



4064, of Jonah. This epistle of the apostle Peter was, 



338 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

like that of James, addressed to Hebrew Christians, and de- 
signed to support them under their afflictions and persecu- 
tions. It may be divided into four parts, exclusive of the 
introduction, viz. : — 

1. Contains an exhortation to the Jewish Christians to 
maintain steadfastly their faith unto the end, chapters first 
and second. 

2. Comprises exhortations to a holy life, and a particular 
discharge of their relative duties, chapter third. 

3. Contains an exhortation to patience and submission, by 
considering the example of Christ, chapters third and fourth* 

4. Directions to ministers of the Churches, and conclusion, 
chapter fifth. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

The Apostle blesses God for the Hope of Immortality — The Salvatioa 
of Christ foretold — Exhortation against Uncharitableness — Privileges 
of Believers — Duty of Wives and Husbands — Exhortation to Unity — 
Suffering for Righteousness'' Sake — Exhortation to cease from Sin, by 
the Example of Christ— The End of All Things— Exhortation to feed the 
Flock of Christ — The Younger to obey the Elder — Resistance of the Devil. 



Second Epistle of Peter. 

A. M. This epistle, like the other, was addressed to He- 
brew Christians, under persecution from the Empe- 



ror Nero. It consists of three parts, viz. : — 

1. The introduction, chapter first. 

2. An exhortation to improve in Christian graces, chapter 
second. 

3. The conclusion, chapter third. 

SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS. 

Peter salutes the Christians, and admonishes them of the Promises 
and Gifts of the Gospel — Foretells them of False Teachers — Their Impi- 
ety and Punishment— The Certainty of Christ's Coming to Judgment — 
Exhortation to Godliness— His Doctrine agrees with Paul — Sums up — 
Conclusion. 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 339 



First Epistle of John. 

A. M. This epistle was written about the year sixty- 
eight. Being written for the use of Christians in 



all countries, it is of interesting importance to mark its con- 
tents. It consists of six parts, viz. : — 

1. Asserts the true divinity and humanity of Christ, and 
urges the union of faith and holiness of life, chapter first. 

2. Shows that all have sinned, and explains the doctrine 
of Christ's propitiation, chapter second. 

3. Asserts Jesus to be the same person with Christ, chap- 
ter second. 

4. The privileges of true believers, chapter third. 

5. Criteria by which to distinguish Antichrist, chapter 
fourth. 

6. Shows the connexion between faith in Christ and vic- 
tory over the world. Shows that a sinful life is inconsistent 
with Christianity. 

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

John declares what lie had seen and heard of the Word of Life— To 
have Fellowship with God, he enjoins Holiness — Christ our Advocate 
and Propitiation — To know God aright is to keep his Commandments — 
Must beware of Seducers — The Love of God toward us declared — Obedi- 
ence is keeping the Commandments, and loving one another — Spirits 
must be put to the test — Reasons for Brotherly Love— He that loves God 
loves his Children — True Faith— Believers have Eternal Life. 



Second and Third Epistles of John. 

A. M. The second epistle is addressed to an eminent 

4089 

— Christian lady, whose name was Electa, who is 



commended for her care in giving her children a religious 
education. 

The third is addressed to a converted Gentile, called Gaius. 
Its design is to commend his faith. 



340 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 



SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

John's Regard for a certain Pious Lady and her Children — He exhorts 
them to Perseverance in the Faith, and to beware of Seducers — Com- 
mends Gaius for his Piety and Hospitality — Censures Diotrephes, whose 
Evil Example is not to be followed. 

Epistle of Jude. 

A. M. There is a marked similarity between this epistle 
4069 . . 
1_ and the Second Epistle of Peter. It is addressed to 

all who had embraced the gospel, and its design is to guard 

them against false teachers, and induce them to contend 

earnestly for the faith. 



SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 

Exhortation to Earnestness in defence of the Faith— False Teachers 
who turned the Grace of God into Lasciviousness — Judgment of Fallen 
Angels— Doom of Sodom — Destruction of False Teachers — Their Charac- 
ter described—Exhortation to Prayer, and Faith, and Holiness— Dedica- 
tion. 

Revelation of St. John the Divine. 

A. M. The revelations contained in this book were made 
to St. John while in exile on the Island of Patmos, 



in the ^Egean Sea, toward the end of the Emperor Domi- 
tian's reign. It was published at Ephesus, about the year 
ninety-seven. The design of the book is twofold : — First, to 
communicate a knowledge of the then present state of the 
Church ; and, secondly, a revelation of events which should 
transpire in the future, in relation to the Church, through all 
time. It consists of two principal divisions, viz. : — 

1. Epistles to the seven Churches of proconsular Asia, 
which lay in the form of an amphitheatre, and were addressed 
according to their geographical positions, chapter first to the 
third. 

2. Contains prophecies, some of which have been fulfilled, 
and others which time alone can expound, chapter fourth to 
the twelfth. 



BIBLICAL HISTORY. 341 



SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. 



John's Salutation to the Seven Churches — The Coming of Christ — His 
Glorious Power and Majesty — What is commanded to be written to the 
Churches — The Angel of the Church of Sardis is reproved, commanded 
to repent, and threatened — The Angel of the Church of Philadelphia is 
approved — The Angel of the Church of Laodicea rebuked — Christ stands 
at the Door and knocks — The Vision of the Throne of God in Heaven — 
The Four-and-Twenty Elders— The Four Beasts, full of Eyes— The Pros- 
tration of the Elders before the Throne — The Book sealed with Seven 
Seals — The Lamb slain praised by the Elders — The Opening of the Seals 
in Order — Prophecy of the End of the World — Servants of God sealed in 
their Foreheads — The Number of the Sealed — Their Robes washed in the 
Blood of the Lamb — Seven Angels with Seven Trumpets — Four of them 
sound their Trumpets — Plagues follow — A Star falleth from Heaven — The 
Pit opened — The First Woe passed — Four Angels, that were bound, loosed 
— An Angel with a Book open — Two Witnesses prophesy — They have 
Power to shut Heaven — The Beast fights against them and kills them — 
The Second Woe is past — A Woman, clothed with the Sun, in travail — 
The great Red Dragon ready to devour her Child — When she is delivered, 
she flies into the Wilderness — Michael and his Angels fight with the 
Dragon, and prevail — The Dragon, cast down, persecutes the Woman — 
The Dragon gives Power to a Beast which rises out of the Sea, having 
Seven Heads and Ten Horns — Another Beast comes out of the Earth — 
Men worship it, and receive its Mark — The Lamb on Mount Zion, with 
his Company — An Angel preaches the Gospel — The Fall of Babylon — The 
Harvest of the World, and putting in the Sickle — The Vintage and 
Wine-press of the Wrath of God — Seven Angels, with the Seven Last 
Plagues — Song of those who overcome the Beast — Seven Vials full of the 
Wrath of God — The Angels pour out their Vials full of Wrath — Plagues 
—Christ comes as a Thief — Blessed are they that watch — Woman ar- 
rayed in Purple and Scarlet — Interpretation of the Seven Heads and Ten 
Horns — The Victory of the Lamb — The Punishment of the Whore — Fall 
of Babylon — People of God commanded to leave her — Kings of the Earth, 
and others, lament her — The Saints of God rejoice in the Judgments of 
Babylon — God is praised in Heaven or judging the Great Whore and 
avenging the Blood of his Saints — The Marriage of the Lamb — The An- 
gel will not be worshipped — Fowls called to the Slaughter — Satan bound 
for a Thousand Years — The First Resurrection — The Blessed that have 
Part in it — Satan let loose again — Gog and Magog — The Devil cast into 
the Lake of Fire and Brimstone — The Last and General Resurrection — 
A New Heaven and New Earth— The Heavenly Jerusalem— The Kings of 
the Earth bring their Riches to it— The River of the Water of Life— The 
Tree of Life— The Light of the City— The Angel will not be worshipped 
—Nothing may be added to the Word of God, or taken therefrom. 



fart tfigftifc, 

BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY 



The science of Biblical chronology relates to the time in 
which the events recorded in the Bible transpired, and the 
order in which they occurred. As various efforts have been 
made, by the infidel world, to invalidate the chronology of 
the Bible, it may not be inappropriate, in this connexion, to 
allude to them, and show their utter fallacy. A great dis- 
play of learning has been attempted by the enemies of Di- 
vine Revelation, and scarcely any department of science has 
been exempted from torture, in the vain attempt to falsify 
the sacred record. 

The dynasties of China and India have been consulted, 
their records unrolled, and the names and lives of kings have 
been produced, many cycles before the accounts of Moses. 
The craters of extinct volcanoes have been explored, and 
their indurated scorice have been examined, to make them 
tell of ages anterior to the birth of man. Shafts have been 
sunk to the very foundations of the mountains, and the dif- 
ferent strata of rocks, to the primeval formation, have been 
examined, to find a record, in their geological structure, con- 
tradicting the cosmogony of Moses. To these objections the 
attention of the reader is briefly directed, and, although this 
work is not designed as a defence of the Bible from the at- 
tacks of infidels, but as a help to the student in the investi- 
gation of its facts, prophecies, and mysteries, it may not be 
irrelevant to assist in dissipating the vapours which have 
been evoked from the stagnant sea of error, to obscure the 
landmarks bounding the coast of truth. 

In regard to the antiquity of India, it has been claimed that 



BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY. 343 

astronomical tables were discovered that were formed at least 
three thousand five hundred years before Christ, and that they 
were but the mere fragments of an earlier and far more perfect 
science. It is known that the origin of astronomy in Persia and 
India has suffered the same fate that it has among all other 
ancient nations, being lost in the darkness of their early history. 
Laplace remarks : — " There is no reason to believe that these 
Indian tables can claim a high antiquity; besides, the con- 
junction of the planets which these tables describe, could 
not possibly have taken place." The monstrous claims in 
regard to the antiquity of China, in which the names of long 
lines of kings are displayed, and accounts of dynasties fur- 
nished, extending back millions of ages, is answered by Sir 
William Jones, one of the most distinguished Oriental schol- 
ars in the world, in the following language : — " On the most 
liberal construction, the existence of an established govern- 
ment in the East can be traced back no further than two 
thousand years before the Christian era — the age of Abra- 
ham — when there was an established dynasty in Egypt, and 
commerce and literature nourished in Phoenicia." 

Equally absurd are the claims of Volney, in regard to the 
antiquity of Egypt. He has no hesitancy in placing the 
formation of the sacerdotal colleges in Egypt thirteen thous- 
and three hundred years before the Christian era, and calling 
that early period the second epoch of their history. Huge and 
half-formed colossal images, subterranean temples, together 
with the zodiacs found at Dendera and Esneh, which were sup- 
posed to represent the state of the heavens at the time in 
which the temples where they were found were erected, were 
appealed to as bearing a date vastly anterior to the chronol- 
ogy of the Bible. Through the labours of Champollion, in 
hierology, the mysterious and hitherto undecipherable char- 
acters found on the obelisks, in the pyramids, tombs, and 
temples of Egypt, were explained, and the language of hie- 
roglyphics, long unknown, and whose meaning was supposed 
to have been forever lost, disclosed the fact that the zodiacs 



344 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

extended back no further than the time of Nero and Tiberius, 
as he read on one of them the name of Tiberius, and on the 
other that of Nero. 

There is but one more subject upon which the enemies of 
the Bible depend to invalidate its chronology, and that is 
the science of geology. This science, like that of astronomy, 
and many others, is but yet in its infancy. System after 
system has risen, conflicting with each other on many im- 
portant points. In 1806 there were no less than eighty 
computed theories, contradicting each other, and all opposed to 
the Scripture cosmogony ; not one of which has stood to the 
present time. The geologist proves that the earth has existed 
through an indefinite series of ages, having only assumed 
its present form a few thousand years ago, when it became 
the habitation of man. He has shown, in the language of 
Harris, " that the mere shell of the earth indicates an un- 
known series of ages, in which creation followed creation, at 
mighty intervals ; and though he cannot establish its chro- 
nology, it nevertheless has a history. The first step below 
the surface of the earth takes the geologist below the dust 
of Adam, and beyond the limits of recorded time. The 
nearest beds of the tertiary formation exhibit no traces what 
ever of human remains." In the language of the " Pre- Ad 
amite Earth" " Let our graves be ever so shallow, we have 
to make them in the dust of a departed world. As we pro- 
ceed downward, formation follows formation, composed chiefly 
of sand, clay, and lime, presenting a thickness of more than 
a thousand feet each. As we descend through these, we 
find ourselves on a road where the lapse of duration is 
marked — not by a succession of seasons and years, but by 
the slow excavation, by water, of deep valleys in rock mar- 
ble — by the return of a continent to the bosom of an ocean, 
in which, ages before, it had been slowly formed — or by tho 
departure of one world and the formation of another. £ 
our first step took us below the line consecrated by human 
dust, but few steps more we will find that the fossil remain* 



BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY. 345 

of all those forms of animal life with which we are most fa- 
miliar, become more and more scarce, until their places are 
gradually supplied by strange and yet stranger forms, till, in 
the last fossiliferous formation of this division, traces of ex- 
isting species become exceedingly rare, and extinct species 
everywhere predominate. The secondary rocks receive us 
into a new fossiliferous world, or into a new series of worlds. 
Taking the chalk formation as the first member of this series, 
we find a stratification upwards of one thousand feet thick. 
Who shall compute the tracks of time necessary for its slow 
sedimentary deposition ? So vast is it, and so widely differ- 
ent, in its physical conditions, from those which follow, that 
only one trace of animal species now living is to be found 
in it. Crowded as it is with conchological remains, for ex- 
ample, not a shell of one of all the seven thousand existing 
species is discoverable. Types of organic life, before un- 
known, arrest our attention, and prepare us for still more 
surprising forms. The next system in order is the oolitic, 
with its many subdivisions, and its thickness of about half a 
mile discloses new proofs of the dateless antiquity of the 
earth. Enormous as this bed is, it evidently was formed 
by depositions from sea and river water, the operation of 
which was so gradual and tranquil that, in some places, the 
organic remains of the different strata resemble the shelves 
of a well-ordered cabinet. Here, too, the last trace of ani- 
mal species, still living, has vanished. The last link is bro- 
ken and gone. We have arrived at a time when the earth 
was in the possession of the monster animals, more appalling 
than ever was feigned by the poet's fancy ; and these are 
their catacombs. After passing through a thousand feet of 
red sandstone and saliferous marls, our subterranean path 
brings us to the carboniferous system, or coal formations. 
These coal strata, many thousand feet thick, consist entirely 
of the spoils of successive ancient vegetable worlds. In the 
rank jungles and vegetable wildernesses which are here accu- 
mulated and compressed, we recognise no plant of any exist- 

15* 



346 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

ing species. Here, too, we have passed below the last trace 
of reptile life. The speaking foot-prints impressed on the 
preceding rocks are absent here. There is no indication 
that these primeval forests ever echoed to the voice of birds. 
Between these strata, beds of limestone, of enormous thick- 
ness, are interposed, each proclaiming the prolonged exist- 
ence and final extinction of a creation. These limestone 
beds are not so much the charnel-house of fossil animals as 
the remains of the animals themselves. . The mountain 
masses of stone which now surround us, extending for miles 
in length and breadth, were once sentient existences — testa- 
ceous and coralline — living at the bottom of ancient seas and 
lakes. How countless the ages necessary for their accumula- 
tion, when the formation of only a few inches of strata 
required the life and death of many generations. In this 
region the mind is not merely carried back through immeas- 
urable periods, but amidst the petrified remains of this suc- 
cession of primeval forests, and extinct races of animals, piled 
up into sepulchral mountains, we seem to be encompassed 
by the thickest shadows of the valley of death. 

" On quitting these stupendous monuments of death, we 
leave behind us the last vestige of land-plants, and pass 
down to the old red sandstone, the geological formation of 
which tells us of the flight of innumerable ages. Though 
many thousand feet in depth, it is obviously derived from 
the materials of more ancient rocks, fractured, decomposed, 
and slowly deposited in water. The gradual and quiet na- 
ture of the process, and, therefore, its immense duration, are 
evident from the numerous platforms of death which mark 
its formation, each crowded with organic structures, which 
lived and died where they are now seen, and which, conse- 
quently, must have perished by some destructive agency, too 
sudden to allow of their dispersion, and yet so subtle and 
quiet as to leave the place of their habitation undisturbed. 
Immeasurably far behind us we have left the fair face of the 
extant creation, while travelling into the night of ancient 



BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY. 347 

time; yet we feel that we are but standing upon the thresh- 
old of the next Silurian system, and, looking down to the 
foundations of the earth, we find that we have not descended 
half-way. On surveying the fossil structures in this region, 
we are struck with the total change in the petrified inhabi- 
tants of the sea, as compared with what was found in moun- 
tain limestone, implying the lapse of long periods of time. 
Below this we reach the Cambrian system, of equal thick- 
ness, and formed by the same slow process. In this region 
the gradual decrease of animal remains admonishes us that, 
even the vast and dreary empire of death has its limits, and 
that we are on its very outskirts. There is a solitude greater 
than that of the boundless desert, and a dreariness more 
impressive than that which reigns in a world entombed. On 
leaving the slate-rocks of the Cambrian, and descending to 
those of the Cumbrian formation, the worlds of organic re- 
mains are past — a region is found older than death, because 
it is older than life itself. Passing down farther, through 
beds of mica schist, many thousand feet in depth, the great 
gneiss formation is reached, and stratification itself ceases. 

" The succession of worlds through which we have passed, 
from the surface of the earth, only extends to the depth of 
ten miles. Below us are the granitic masses, unexplored by 
man, extending to a depth of nearly four thousand miles. 
Geology here stands in an immeasurable night of time, hav- 
ing for her days and years ages and cycles of ages." 

In view of these facts, what becomes of the chronology 
of the Bible ? The common idea is, that the divine historian 
makes the earth but about six thousand years old, while 
geology shows it to have an antiquity almost beyond the 
power of computation. 

This, however, is not the true interpretation of the sacred 
record. It says : — " In the beginning God created the heav- 
ens and the earth ;" but it nowhere fixes the time of that 
beginning. From the night that reigned over a succession 
of extinct worlds, Jehovah spake into existence the present 



348 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

order of things, at the time specified by Moses, and the 
records of geology attest the truthfulness of his statements. 
He tells us when Eden was planted and man created ; 
and there are no traces indicating their existence beyond 
that period. Among all the fossil remains of the different 
orders of animals found in the various strata of worlds 
through which the geologist has passed, not one human bone 
has yet been found. 

The great stand and starting point of the Bible is the cre- 
ation of man, as an occupant of the beautiful world fitted up 
for his special residence. 

The first verse of the Bible is but a distinct announcement 
of the fact that the material universe was primarily origina- 
ted by God, out of elements not previously existing ; and 
that the originating act was quite distinct from the acts in- 
cluded in the six natural days of the Adamic creation. 

The Bible is thus found to be perfectly coincident with 
the teachings of geology, and the time of the facts and 
events which it records is accurate beyond all question. 

It is thought proper, in the further discussion of this sub- 
ject, to divide the facts and events of the Bible into distinct 
periods, or ages. Beginning at the first year of the world, 
as recorded in the Bible, all the principal events, in the order 
of time, shall be noted, embracing a period of four thousand 
one hundred years. 



BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY. 



349 



FIRST AGE. 



YEAR. 



REMARKS. 



Reduction of chaos to order — Planting of Eden 

—Creation of man— Fall of man— Promise of 

a Saviour. 
Birth of Cain and Abel. 
The earth first peopled after the expulsion from 

Paradise. 
The sacrifices of Cain and Abel— The murder of 

Abel— Banishment of Cain. 
The birth of Seth. 
The birth of Enos— Men begin to call on the 

name of the Lord. 
The birth of Cainan. 
Mahalaleel born. 
Jared born. 

Enoch born 

Methuselah born. 

Lamech born 



Death of Adam — First notice of idolatrous sa- 
crifices 

Enoch translated, having first predicted a fu 
ture judgment. 

Death of Seth 

Noah born 



Mighty men introduce great violence and licen 
tiousness 

Noah commanded to preach repentance and to 
build the ark 120 years before the flood. . . . 



Birth of Japheth. 
Birth of Shem. 
Lamech dies 



Death of Methuselah 



The Deluge. 

Waters subside — Noah comes out of the ark- 
Offers a burnt-offering — God makes a cove- 
nant with him — Rainbow 



SECOND AGE. 

The earth divided among the sons of Noah.. .. 
First foundation of the Assyrian monarchy laid 

by Nimrod. 
Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, built. 
Commencement of the building of the city of 

Babylon and the Tower of Babel 

Menes, supposed to be the Mizraim of the Bible, 

establishes the kingdom of Egypt. 
Mizraim leads colonies into Egypt, and lays the 

foundation of a kingdom which lasts 1663 

years. 
Death of Noah 



In all the records of an- 
tiquity, for a period of 
2000 years from the 
commencement of 
the creation of man, 
nothing can be found 
deserving the name 
of authentic history. 
The period alluded to 
is usually denomina- 
ted the Fabulous Age. 
Astronomy first stud- 
ied by Seth. 

The seventh man. 

The father of Noah. 
Attempts at naviga- 
tion. 
Aged 930 years. 

Aged 365 years. 

Aged 912 years. 

Speech of Lamech the 
oldest extant poetry. 

Oannes teaches art and 
letters. 

Manufacture of musical 
instruments. Work- 
ing of metals. 



The first man who died 
a natural death be- 
fore his father. 

Aged 969 years, the old- 
est man. 

Plants a vineyard and 
becomes intoxicated 
with wine. 



Asshur, 



Languages 
ed. 



confound- 



Aged 950— lived 350 
years after the flood, 



350 



MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 



SECOND AGE. 



REMARKS. 



A.M. 

2008 
2036 



2079 



2083 



2107 



2108 
2133 
2167 



2183 
2244 
2265 



2274 
2275 

2289 

2296 
2297 



2369 
2427 
2431 

2473 



Abram born. 

Ninus is supposed to reign in Assyria. At his 
death, Semiramis, his queen, assumes the 
government and moves the seat of govern- 
ment from Nineveh to Babylon, which she 
greatly enlarges and improves. 

Chedorlaomer subdues the kings of Sodom, Go- 
morrah, Admah, Zeboiim, and Bela, who serve 
him twelve years. 



THIRD AGE. 

Promise of the Messiah made to Abram— Com- 
manded to enter upon the land of Canaan. 

Famine in Canaan — Abram and family go into 
Egypt — Same year Abram and Lot return to 
Canaan — Separate — Lot goes to Sodom — 
Abram builds an altar in Hebron — Returns 
from the slaughter of the kings, and is blessed 
by Melchizedek. 

God makes a covenant with Abram, and in 
token changes his name to Abraham — Cir- 
cumcision instituted — Isaac promised — God 
reveals to Abraham the destruction of Sodom 
— Intercedes for Lot and his family — Sodom 
and the neighbouring cities destroyed. 

Isaac born. 

The trial of Abraham on Mount Moriah. 

Jacob and Esau born 



Death of Abraham. 
Jacob supplants Esau. 

Jacob wrestles with an angel and is called Is- 
rael 



The age of Job 

Joseph sold by his brethren to Ishmaelites, who 
carry him into Egypt. 

Interprets Pharaoh's dreams, and is made gov- 
ernor of Egypt — Seven years of plenty begin. 

Commencement of the seven years of famine. 

Jacob sends his sons to Egypt to buy corn — 
Joseph is made known to his brethren, and 
his father is sent for 

Death of Joseph. — Here the book of Genesis ends, 
containing the history of 2369 years. 

Commencement of the bondage of the children 
of Israel. 

Moses born — Becomes the adopted son of Pha- 
raoh's daughter 



Moses flees to Midian, where he dwells forty 
years 



Period of the Patri- 
archs. 



Expulsion of the shep- 
herd kings from 

Egypt. 



Inachus, a Phoenician, 
is supposed to have 
founded the kingdom 
of Argos. He erects 
a temple to Apollo on 
Mount Lycaon. 

Ogyges in Attica. 



Israelites settle in 
Goshen, a province 
of Lower Egypt. 



Scamander founds the 

city and kingdom of 

Troy. 
Cecrops founds Athens 

—Thebes built by 

Cadmus. 



BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY. 



351 



THIRD AGE. 



EEMAEKS. 



God appears to Moses on Mount Horeb in a burn- 
ing bush — Is sent to deliver the Israelites — The ten 
plagues of Egypt. 



FOURTH AGE. 

The Passover instituted — Same month, at midnight, 
600,000 Israelites, exclusive of their children, take 
up their march for the Eed Sea — The army is con- 
ducted by a pillar of cloud by day and a pillar of 
fire by night — The waters are divided — Egyptians 
drowned— The following month they reach the wil- 
derness of Zin, between Elim aud Sinai. 

Arrive at Sinai — God publishes his law on tables of 
stone — 3,000 idolaters destroyed by the Levites — God 
passes by Moses, and shows him his glory — The taber- 
nacle, ark of the covenant, altar, table of show-bread, 
priests' garments, holy ointment, candlestick, and 
other utensils and vessels belonging to the sacrifices, 
are finished in the desert at Sinai and brought to 
Moses. 

The tabernacle is set up, and priests consecrated — 
Nadab and Abihu are struck dead by fire from heaven 
— God speaketh to Moses from the mercy-seat — The 
second passover is instituted — Spies sent to the land 
of Canaan. 

Encampment at Kadesh-barnea. 

Destruction of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, with 250 
of their associates, for mutiny — Destruction of 14,700 
men for murmuring against Moses and Aaron — 
Aaron's rod buds — Laid up in the ark for a me- 
morial. 

After travelling nearly 40 years, the Israelites en- 
camp in the wilderness of Zin — Death of Miriam — 
People murmur for water — Kock smitten — For speak- 
ing unadvisedly, Moses and Aaron are debarred 
admission to Canaan — Aaron die3 on Mount Hor — 
Plague of fiery serpents — Brazen serpent erected — 
Encampment at Mount Pisgah — Sihon, king of the 
Amorites, slain — Og, king of Bashan, and all his 
people destroyed — Encampment at Moab — Balak 
sends for Balaam, a prophet in Mesopotamia, to come 
and curse Israel — Through the influence of the wo- 
men of Moab and Midian, 24,000 men are hung, slain 
by plague, and killed by sword, in one day — The high- 
priesthood settled forever on the house of Phineas — 
Number of the Israelites 601,730, besides the Le- 
vites, whose number was 23,000 — Land of Canaan 
divided among the tribes on this side of the river 
Jordan — The people commanded to set up great 
stones and engrave thereon the ten commandments 
— Moses writes the law, and delivers it to the priests 
and elders of the people to be kept — Samfe day writes 
his song, and teaches it to the people to be sung — 
Finishes the book of the law, and commands it to 
be kept in the ark — Blesses every tribe by way of 
prophecy, save the tribe of Levi — Ascends Mount 
Nebo— Beholds the Land of Promise, and dies— He 



May 4th. 



The five books of 
Moses written. 



Aged 123 years. 



Aged 120 years, 



352 



MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

FOURTH AGE. 






YEAR. 



EVENTS. 



REMARKS. 



A.M. 

2552 



2553 



2554 

2559 

2560 

2561 
2591 

2599 

2661 
2679 
2691 

2719 

2752 
2753 
2759 



2768 
2769 

2771 

2794 
2798 
2816 



2822 
2829 
2840 
2848 



2849 
2867 
2868 

2887 



is mourned for 30 days — Close of the Pentateuch, 
embracing a history of 2,552 years — Succeeded by 
Joshua — Israelites cross the Jordan on dry ground — 
Twelve stones set up in the channel — Circumcision 
revived after having been omitted 40 years — Pass- 
over celebrated for the first time in Canaan — The 
Lord Jesus Christ appears to Joshua with a drawn 
sword in his hand as Captain of the hosts of his Father 
— Book of the law read in the ears of the people. 

The rise of the Sabbatical years taken from the autumn 
of this. 

The land divided in Canaan proper among the remain- 
ing tribes — The giants of the land destroyed. 

The tabernacle set up at Shiloh 



Death of Joshua 

The Israelites, for their idolatry and forgetfulness of 
God, are delivered into the hands of Chushan, king of 
Mesopotamia, who holds them in subjection 8 years. 

Othniel defeats Chushan, and delivers the children 
of Israel from bondage — The land has rest for 40 
years 

On the death of Othniel, the people fall into sin, and 
are enslaved by Eglon, king of Moab, 18 years. 

Ehud kills Eglon — Gathers the people, and slays 10,000 
valiant men — The land rests 80 years. 

On the death of Ehud, the people relapse again into 
sin, and are enslaved by Jabin, king of Canaan, for 
20 years. 

Deborah, Barak, and Jael, overcome and destroy Sisera, 
and deliver Israel — Again the land has rest 40 years. 

Israelites sinning again, are enslaved by the Midian- 
ites for a period of 7 years — Are delivered by Gideon 
— He refuses the government but receives gold ear- 
rings, which, converting into an ephod,* the people 
become idolaters — The land again has rest 40 years. 

Death of Gideon — Idolatry of Israel. 

Abimelech, wishing to obtain the kingdom which his 
father refused, slays 70 of his brothers. 

Abimelech, having reigned 3 years over Israel, is con- 
spired against — Flees, and is killed 

Tola judges Israel 23 years. 

Jair succeeds Tola, and judges Israel 22 years. 

Israelites worship the gods of other nations, and are 
enslaved 18 years — Jephthah devotes his daughter, 
and judges Israel 6 years — He slays 42,000 Ephraim- 
ites for their insolence 

Ibzan succeeds Jephthah, and judges Israel 7 years. 

Elon succeeds Ibzan. 

Abdon succeeds Elon. 

Eli, the high-priest, succeeds Abdon, and judges Israel 
40 years — For the sin of the Israelites they are 
again enslaved for a period of 40 years 

Samson is born at Zorah. 

Samson slays 30 men of Askelon. 

Destroys the vineyards and olive-gardens of the Philis- 
tines — Slays 1,000 Philistines. 

Betrayed by his concubine — His eyes put out — Pulls 
down the temple of the god Dagon, slaying more at 
his death than in all his life. 



Remains for 328 

years. 
110 years old. 



First dawn of 
poesy — Period 
of the Judges. 



Argonautic Ex- 
pedition. 



Theban war. 



Troy destroyed 
by the Greeks. 



In the mean time 
Eli dies. 



BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY. 



353 



FOURTH AGE. 



Israelites lose 4,000 men in one battle with the Philis- 
tines — They bring the ark of the Lord into the camp 
from Shiloh, which is taken, and 30,000 Israelites 
are slain — Eli falls from his seat at the dreadful in- 
telligence and is killed — Philistines set the ark in 
the temple of their god Dagon — The image falls be- 
fore it twice and is broken in pieces — Plagues fol- 
low wherever it is taken until they send it home 
— Upwards of 50,000 men are smitten. 

Israelites repent at Mizpeh, and God delivers them. 

Israelites require a king to be given them — Samuel 
anoints Saul, and he is proclaimed king. 

David born. 

God rejects Saul, and sends Samuel to anoint David. 

David, having Saul twice in his power, refuses to hurt 
him. 

David flees from Saul to Gath. 

Saul consults the witch of Endor — In battle, Saul falls 
on his own sword, and dies by the hand of an Ama- 
lekite, whom David puts to death — Abner makes 
Saul's son king over part of Israel. 

A.bner joins David, but is treacherously murdered by 
Joab — David anointed king the third time. 

David with all Israel marches to Jerusalem, and takes 
the fort of Zion — Calls it the city of David, and makes 
Jerusalem the seat of his kingdom, where he reigns 
33 years. 

The ark of the covenant brought from the house of 
Abinadab in Kirjath-jearim, and placed in Zion, 
30,000 choice men attending it and singing the 68th 
Psalm. 

David communicates to Nathan his desire to build a 
house for the Lord — It is answered, that not he, 
but Solomon should build it — David, by many wars 
with surrounding nations, extends his kingdom. 

David is guilty of adultery and murder. 

Kepents, and composes the 51st Psalm. 

David marries Bathsheba — Solomon born. 

Amnon, David's eldest son, defiles his sister Tamar. 

Absalom avenges his sister by killing Amnon, and flees 
to Syria. 

Returns to Jerusalem, and after two years is reconciled 
to his father. 

Absalom steals away the hearts of the people from his 
father David. 

Engages in a rebellion against his father, and causes 
him to flee from Jerusalem — Ahithophel hangs him- 
self—Absalom, having lost 20,000 men, in fleeing is 
caught in the bough of an oak, and is run through 
by Joab. 

David, tempted by Satan, commands Joab to number 
the people — God sends a pestilence, during which 
70,000 men die in one day — On David's repentance, 
the plague is stayed. 

Rehoboam is born to Solomon. 

Solomon anointed king — David dies. 

Pharaoh, king of Egypt, gives his daughter in mar- 
riage to Solomon — God gives him wisdom, riches, 
and honour— Wisdom manifested in judging between 
two harlots. 



REMARKS. 



Mariner's com- 
pass in use in 
China. 



354 



MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 



FIFTH AGE. 



YEAR. 



EVENTS. 



REMARKS. 



A.M. 

2992 
2999 

3000 

3029 



3030 
3033 

3046 
3047 

3049 
3050 

3051 
3053 



3074 
3075 



3079 
3080 
3086 

3090 
3092 

3103 

3111 

3113 

3114 
3115 



3119 



3120 



3123 
3124 



Solomon lays the foundation of the temple. 

Temple finished, having beeD seven and a half years 
in building. 

Dedication of the temple celebrated with great mag- 
nificence 

Solomon writes Ecclesiastes — Death of Solomon — Re 
hoboam made king — Revolt of ten tribes under 
Jeroboam, who become idolaters, and worship the 
golden calves set up by the king at Bethel and Dan. 

Rehoboam becomes an idolater. 

Shishak, king of Egypt, spoils Jerusalem and the 
temple. 

Abijam, son of Rehoboam, succeeds his father. 

Obtains a great victory over Jeroboam — Kills 500,000 
men in one battle, and takes Bethel. 

Asa succeeds his father Abijam. 

Nadab succeeds his father Jeroboam in the kingdom 
of Israel. 

Nadab is slain — The whole race of Jeroboam destroyed. 

Asa destroys idolatry, and establishes a standing army. 

Zerah with an innumerable army invades Judah — Asa 
overcomes him, and makes a covenant with God. 

Elah succeeds his father in the kingdom of Israel. 

Zimri conspires against Elah, and kills him and reigns 
in his stead — Destroys the family of Baasha — The 
army makes Omri their king — Zimri sets fire to the 
palace, and perishes. 

The people of Israel divided into two factions. 

Omri removes the seat of his kingdom to Samaria. 

Ahab succeeds his father in the kingdom of Israel — 
Does evil in the sight of the Lord. 

Jehoshaphat succeeds his father Asa. 

Destroys the groves and high places, and sends Le- 
vites to instruct the people in the law of the Lord. 

Ben-hadad, king of Syria, lays seige to Samaria, but 
suffers great loss. 

Ahab obtains Naboth's vineyard by fraud — Elijah de- 
nounces judgments against him. 

ihab makes his son Ahaziah an associate in the gov- 
ernment of the kingdom — Jehoshaphat also asso- 
ciates with him his son Jehoram. 

Ahab consults 400 false prophets — Is slain at Ramoth- 
gilead 

On the death of Ahab the Moabites revolt from the 
kingdom of Israel — Elijah destroys the men sent by 
Ahaziah to arrest him by fire from heaven— Jehoram 
succeeds his brother Ahaziah in the kingdom of Is- 
rael — Elijah is taken up to heaven in a chariot of fire 
and horses of fire. 

Jehoshaphat invests his son Jehoram with the throne 
—After the death of his father, he puts all his breth- 
ren to the sword— The Edomites revolt from the 
kingdom of Judah. 

Jehoram, following the advice of his wicked wife, es- 
tablishes idolatrous worship 



Ahaziah succeeds his father in the kingdom of Judah. 

Jezebel cast out of the window, and eaten by dogs— 

Ahab's family destroyed— The priests of Baal slain— 



Age of Homer 
and Hesiod. 



Dido founds Car- 
thage. 

Caranus founds 
the Macedo- 
nian kingdom. 



Lycurgus estab- 
lishes his cele- 
brated consti- 
tution. 



BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY. 



355 



FIFTH AGE. 



EVENTS. 



BEMARKS. 



Jehu kills Ahaziah and 42 of his kinsmen — Atha- 
liah, the daughter of Ahab, usurps the kingdom, and 
destroys the royal family, with the exception of Je- 
hoash, an infant son. 

Jehoash anointed king, and Athaliah slain. 

Jehoash orders the repair of the temple — Jehoahaz 
succeeds his father, Jehu, in the kingdom of Israel. 

Jehoash, the son of Jehoahaz, is taken into consortship 
in the kingdom of Israel. 

Zechariah is stoned to death in the court of the house 
of the Lord, for reproving the people for idolatry. 
This was done at the command of Jdng Jehoash, who 
is next year murdered in his bed and succeeded by 
his son Amaziah. 

Jehoahaz dies, and is succeeded by his son Jehoash — 
Visits Elisha — Elisha dies, and a dead man is brought 
to life by being laid in the prophet's grave. 

Jeroboam the Second taken into consortship with his 
father in the kingdom of Israel. 

Jehoash overcomes Amaziah in battle, and takes him 
prisoner— Breaks down 400 cubits of the wall of 
Jerusalem — Spoils the temple and the king's palace, 
of vast treasure. 

Jehoash dies — Jeroboam the Second reigns. 

Amaziah is murdered at Lachish — Succeeded by his 
son Uzziah. 

The thirteenth Jubilee held — Isaiah, Joel, Jonah, Ho- 
sea, and Amos lived at this time — Inhabitants ofi 
Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, repent at the preach- 
ing of Jonah. 

Jeroboam dies — Kingdom falls into anarchy — An in- 
terregnum of eleven years and a half 



Zachariah begins his reign over Israel. 

Shallum murders Zachariah, and reigns one month — 
Menahem kills Shallum — Unnatural murder of wo- 
men in Tiphsah. 

Menahem prevents the king of Assyria from invading 
his country by giving him 1,000 talents of silver. 

Pekahiah succeeds his father Menahem. 

Pekah, one of his captains, kills him in his own palace, 
and reigns in his stead. 

Jotham succeeds his father, Uzziah, in the kingdom 
of Israel — He subdues the Ammonites — Under him 
and his two successors the prophets Micah, Hosea, 
and Nahum execute their office. 

Ahaz succeeds his father, Jotham — The promise of Im- 
manuel, to be born of a virgin — Ahaz forsakes God, 
his deliverer — 120,000 of the men of Judah slain, 
and 200,000 carried into captivity. 

Hoshca, the son of Elah, murders Pekah, and usurps 
the kingdom — The state without any form of gov- 
ernment. 

Shalmaneser.kingof Assyria, comes up against Hoshea, 
and makes him pay tribute. 

Hezekiah succeeds his father, Ahaz, in the kingdom 
of Judah — Destroys idolatry — Celebrates a solemn 
passover. 



First Olympiad, 
— an era from 
which the 
Greeks reck- 
oned time. 



The age of Amos. 



The age of Hosea 
and Micah. 



356 



MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 



FIFTH AGE. 



YEAR. 



REMARKS. 



A.M. 

3283 



3291 

3294 
3306 
3348 

3361 
3363 



3372 
3378 



3392 



3393 
3398 

3400 

3402 
3405 



Shalmaneser besieges Samaria, destroys the kingdom 
of Israel, and carries the Israelites captive to his 
own country 



Sennacherib besieges Judah, but is appeased by a 
tribute — Hezekiah obtains a prolongation of his life 
— The sun goes ten degrees backward. 

Sennacherib violates the treaty of peace — An angel 
of the Lord slays 185,000 of the Assyrian army — Sen- 
nacherib is slain by his own sons — Hezekiah dies. 

Manasseh succeeds his father — Sets up idolatry — Car- 
ried away captive to Babylon — Repents, and is re- 
stored to his kingdom 

Nebuchadnezzar, king of Assyria, sends Holofernes to 
Judea to besiege the country — At Bethulia his head 
is taken off by Judith, a woman of the tribe of 
Simeon 

Amon succeeds his father Manasseh — An idolater as 
his father, but no penitent — Is murdered by his 
servants. 

Josiah, a child eight years old, succeeds his father Amon 
— In his time lived Jeremiah and Zephaniah, proph- 
ets, and Huldah the prophetess 

Commences a reformation in Judah and Jerusalem. . . 

Orders the repair of the temple — The book of the law 
found — Ordered to be read to all the people — Burns 
dead men's bones on the altar of Bethel, and cele- 
brates a solemn passover. 

War between the kings of Egypt and Assyria — Josiah 
engages in it and is slain in the valley of Megiddo — 
His death bewailed by public mourning — The Lam- 
entations of Jeremiah composed in remembrance of 
his death — The people anoint Shallum, one of his 
sons, king — He is deposed by Pharaoh-necho, who 
places his elder brother, Eliakim, king over Judah 
and Jerusalem, and changes his name into Jehoiakim. 

Uriah and Jeremiah prophesy against Jerusalem — The 
former is put to death — The latter is acquitted and 
set at liberty 

Nebuchadnezzar the Great made by his father, Nabo- 
polassar, his associate in the kingdom of Assyria 
and Babylon — Jehoiakim is put in chains, and car- 
ried to Babylon — 70 years captivity commenced — 
The choicest youth of the royal family educated in the 
language and science of the Chaldeans, for the ser- 
vice of the king. 

Nabopolassar dies, and is succeeded by Nebuchadnez- 
zar — Carries the vessels of the temple to Babylon — 
Places them in the temple of his god Belus. 

Daniel recovers Nebuchadnezzar's dream, and inter- 
prets it — He and his companions are promoted 

An army of Chaldeans, Syrians, Moabites, and Am- 
monites invade Judea, and carry away 3,023 captives 
—Jehoiakim is put to death, and left unburied at 
the gate of Jerusalem — Jehoiachin succeeds his fa- 
ther — Against him Nebuchadnezzar leads an army, 
besieging Jerusalem — Makes all prisoners — Takes 
all the treasure in the king's palace — Breaks all the 



The kingdom of 
Israel stands 
divided from 
that of Judah 
254 years. 



The age of Isaiah. 



The age of Na- 
hum, Jonah, 
Joel, Habak- 
kuk, and Oba- 
diah. 



Zephaniah and 
Jeremiah. 



Ezekiel. 



Habakkuk. 



The ageof Daniel. 



BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY. 



357 



FIFTH AGE. 



EEMARKS. 



vessels of gold and furniture which Solomon had 
made for the temple— Carries to Babylon the king, 
his mother, wives, courtiers, magistrates, and 10,000 
able men out of Jerusalem, leaving none but the 
poorer sort — From the country he carries away 
8,000 artificers — An epistle is sent from Jeremiah 
warning them to beware of the idolatry in Babylon. 



Nebuchadnezzar makes Zedekiah king of Judah — 
Jerusalem is again taken by Nebuchadnezzar — 
Zedekiah's eyes are put out, and he sent to Baby- 
lon — The temple and city are fired and reduced to 
ashes — Obadiah denounces judgments against Edom 
for taunting the people of God in their calamity — 
So also Jeremiah and Ezekiel. 



SIXTH AGE. 

Nebuchadnezzar deprived of his reason, and driven 
out from the society of men. 

His reason and kingdom restored to him — Soon after 
dies — Evil-merodach succeeds him — Liberates Jehoi- 
achin — Promotes him to honour. 

Evil-merodach murdered, and succeeded by his son 
Belshazzar — Daniel has his vision of the four beasts, 
signifying the four great monarchies of the world. 

Daniel's vision of the ram and he-goat, betokening 
the destruction of the Persian monarchy 

Belshazzar's guilty feast — Mysterious characters on the 
wall — Interpreted by Daniel — Proclaimed President 
of the kingdom — The same night Belshazzar is slain 
— Babylon is taken by Cyrus — Given to the Medes 
and Persians — Cyrus makes Darius the Mede king, 
and reserving some palaces for himself, returns to 
Persia — Daniel's greatness excites envy — An un- 
righteous decree made — Cast into the den of lions — 
Receives no hurt — His enemies devoured by the 
lions. 

Daniel's prophecy of the 70 weeks. 

Cyrus becomes emperor of Persia and Media — His 
proclamation, liberating all the Jews, and sending 
them back to Jerusalem, with a command to imme- 
diately rebuild the temple — Restores all the holy 
vessels — 42,360 return to their own land — Levites 
appointed to oversee the work — Samaritans disturb 
the Jews in their work — Artaxerxes forbids the Jews 
from going on with their work of rebuilding. 

In the second year of the reign of Darius Hystaspis, 
Zerubbabel and Jeshua recommence the work- 
Prophecy of Haggai that the glory of the latter tem- 
ple should exceed that of the former 

Zechariah exhorts the Jews to repentance. 

Ahasuerus puts away his wife Vashti, and marries 
Esther, the niece of Mordecai the Jew. 

The temple completed — The dedication celebrated 
with great joy — Passover also celebrated. 

Haman offended at Mordecai — Resolves to take ven- 
geance on the whole nation — Obtains an edict for 



Solon, the legis- 
lator of Athens 
and benefactor 
of the human 
race. 

Geographical 
maps and 
globes first in- 
vented. 



Zoroaster, 
fucius. 



Con- 



The age of Hag- 
gai and Zecha- 
riah. 



358 



MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 



SIXTH AGE. 



TEAR. 



REMARKS. 



A.M. 

3494 



3495 
3537 

3549 
3552 
3589 

3669 
3671 



3673 
3681 

3684 
3727 



3827 
3828 

3829 

3832 

3834 



3835 



their indiscriminate slaughter — Mordecai, Esther, 
and all the Jews fast and pray— Ahasuerus hearing 
it read in the Chronicles that Mordecai had discov- 
ered a conspiracy to him, has him publicly hon- 
oured — Esther, at a public banquet, accuses Haman. 

The gallows Haman had prepared for Mordecai he 
is hanged on himself 

Ezra, the priest, a man skilled in the law of Moses, 
obtains a large commission from Artaxerxes to set- 
tle the Jewish commonwealth and to reform the 
Church at Jerusalem— Ezra sets out with a great 
multitude of Jews from Babylon. 

All who had taken strange wives are ordered by 
Ezra to send them back — Nehemiah, the governor 
of Judea, has permission to rebuild the walls 

He returns to Persia 



The twenty-first Jubilee, the last that the prophets of 
the Old Testament ever saw — Malachi's prophecy. 
Here ends the chronology of the Old Testament, as ob- 
tained from its canonical books. 

Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia, passes out of 
Europe into Asia and invades Persia 

Sanballat obtains leave from Alexander to build a 
temple on Mount Gerizim — Makes Manasses high- 
priest thereof— Alexander prevented from besieging 
Jerusalem by the reception he meets with from the 
high-priest and people all in white — Sacrifices in 
the temple — Bestows favours upon the Jews and 
natives. 

The Persians are overcome — Darius slain — Alexander 
universal monarch of the world. 

Alexander dies — His dominions divided among his gen- 
erals : Asia, to Antigonus ; Babylon, to Seleucus ; the 
Hellespont, to Lysimachus; Macedon, to Cassander ; 
Egypt, to Ptolemaeus. 

Ptolemseus makes himself master of Jerusalem by 
stratagem — Sends colonies of Jews into Egypt. 

Ptolemseus Philadelphus, son of Ptolemseus Soter, be- 
ing a great friend of learning, builds a most magnifi- 
cent library at Alexandria — Demetrius Phalereus, 
to whom he had committed the work of selecting 
books from all countries, persuades him to employ 
72 Jews to translate the Holy Scriptures out of the 
original Hebrew into the Greek tongue. 

Heliodorus is struck down for invading the temple. 

Seleucus is succeeded by Antiochus Epiphanes in the 
kingdom of Syria. 

Jason obtains the office of high-priest by corrupting 
King Antiochus. 

Menelaus obtains the priesthood by bribery and cor- 
ruption. 

Antiochus takes Jerusalem, pillages the temple, de- 
stroys 40,000 of the inhabitants, and sells many 
more — Endeavours to abolish the Jewish worship — 
Samaritans disown them in their adversity, and 
consecrate their temple on Mount Gerizim to 
Jupiter. 

The kingdom of the Macedonians ends. 



Roman republic. 
Time of Ezra. 



The age of Mal- 
achi. 

Herodotus— Thu- 
cydides — Soc- 
rates. 



Apocryphal pe- 
riod. 



BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY. 



359 



SIXTH AGE. 



REMARKS. 



King Antiochus commands all nations to embrace the 
worship of the Grecians on pain of death — Many 
Jews suffer martyrdom — Matthias, a priest, with his 
five sons, slays those who are sent to compel them 
to offer sacrifice to idols— They flee to the desert, 
are pursued, and, because they do not defend them- 
selves on the Sabbath, are killed. 

Matthias dies, and Judas Maccabeus takes his place, 
and delivers his country from abominations — Apol- 
lonius is slain by him, and his army discomfited — 
Seron, governor of Lower Syria, invades Judea — 
Judas slays 800 of his men, and puts the rest to 
flight. 

He defeats a great army which Antiochus had sent 
into Judea^ — Lysias returns with greater power — 
Judas kills 5,000 of his men, and the rest retreat — 
He purifies the temple after it had been desolate 
three years, and builds a wall around Zion. 

The judgments of God fall upon Antiochus — He dies, 
and his son, Eupator, reigns in his stead— Onias re- 
tires into Egypt, where Ptolemaeus Philometer and 
Cleopatra, his wife, permit him to build a temple at 
Heliopolis, where they constitute him high-priest — 
Demetrius Soter escapes from Rome, comes to Syria 
— Puts to death Antiochus and Lysias, and is crowned 
king. 

Demetrius sends Nicanor with a great army against 
Judas — Is slain — Demetrius sends another army of 
20,000 — Judas meets it with 800, and is slain — His 
brother, Jonathan, is chosen general in his stead — 
Jonathan enters into an alliance with the Romans — 
The first league ever known between the Romans 
and Jews. 

Alcimus is struck dead for commanding the inner 
court of the temple to be pulled down 



Demetrius is slain in battle by Alexander — Alexander 
Balas is married to Cleopatra. 

The temple of Dagon burned by Demetrius Nicanor — 
Ptolemaeus takes his daughter from Alexander, and 
marries her to Demetrius. 

Ptolemaeus dies — Jonathan besieges the citadel of 
Jerusalem. 

Demetrius is vanquished, and Jonathan renews his 
league with the Romans. 

Jonathan is decoyed to Ptolemais by Tryphon, where 
he is taken prisoner, and his men put to the sword — 
Jonathan put to death — Tryphon murders the young 
Antiochus, and puts the crown on his own head — 
The Romans and Lacedaemonians write their league 
on tables of brass. 

Simon, the son of Jonathan, has the government and 
high-priesthood settled on him — Drives all idolaters 
out of the city of Zion. 

Antiochus slain — Simon and his two sons barbarously 
murdered by Ptolemaeus, the son of Abubua. 

John Hyrcanus takes Shechem — Demolishes the tem- 
ple on Mount Gerizim. 



Rome, the arbi- 
tress of nations 
from the At- 
lantic to the 
Euphrates. 



360 



MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 



SIXTH AGE. 



YEAR. 



EVENTS. 



REMARKS. 



A.M. 

3897 



3916 

3941 

3955 
3966 

3977 
3986 
3999 
4004 



4008 



4014 

4026 
4027 



4030 



4031 



4032 



Judas, eldest son of Hyrcanus, succeeds his father in 
the government and high-priesthood — Sets a crown 
upon his head, and changes the state into a mon- 
archy 

Anna, the prophetess, becoming a widow, remains in 
the temple, where she serves God day and night, by 
fasting and prayer, 84 years. 

Jerusalem taken by Pompey, and the Jews made 
tributary to the Romans 



Herod, the son of Antipas, an Idumean, is made king 
of Judea. 

Hillel, a descendant of David, lives in Jerusalem — His 
disciple, Jonathan, is the author of the Chaldee 
paraphrase , 



Caesar Augustus assumes the title of emperor — The re- 
public is changed into a monarchy. 

The angel Gabriel appears to Zachary, the priest, as 
he is offering incense in the temple. 

The same angel sent to the Virgin Mary — The annun- 
ciation. 

John the Baptist born six months before Christ. 



SEVENTH AGE. 

The advent of our Lord and Saviour. 

The eighth day after his nativity he is circumcised 
and named Jesus — The Magi bring presents— Joseph 
flees into Egypt — Herod commands the infants in 
Bethlehem to be slain — Herod dies, and Archelaus 
is made tetrarch by Caesar — Christ is brought back 
from Egypt. 

Our Lord goes with his parents to Jerusalem to attend 
the Passover — Disputes with the doctors — Augustus 
dies, and Tiberius succeeds him. 

Josephus, called Caiaphas, is made high-priest of the 
Jews. 

Pontius Pilate made procurator of Judea. 

John the Baptist preaches and baptizes in the wilder- 
ness of Judea— Baptizes Christ in Jordan — Christ is 
tempted in the wilderness. 

Christ returns to Galilee — Andrew, Peter, Philip, and 
Nathanael acknowledge him the Messiah — Marriage 
at Cana — The first passover of Christ's public min- 
istry — Christ enters the temple and drives out the 
money changers — John cast into prison by Herod — 
Christ discovers himself to the woman of Samaria. 

Christ goes through Galilee and teaches in the syna- 
gogues, working miracles — Matthew called to be a 
disciple — The second Passover held — Christ heals 
the impotent man at the pool of Bethesda — The 
twelve Apostles chosen — Sermon on the Mount. 

The twelve sent out two by two to preach the gospel 
and heal the sick — John the Baptist is beheaded — 
Christ feeds 5,000 men, besides women and children, 
with the five loaves and two fishes — Refuses to be 
made king — The third Passover held — The trans- 
figuration on the mount — Christ pays tribute to 



The first instance 
of the kind 
since the cap- 
tivity. 



Judea dependent 
upon the Ro- 
mans. 



Herod takes pos- 
session of Jeru- 
salem and Ju- 
dea. 



The first miracle. 



BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY. 



361 



SEVENTH AGE. 



REMARKS. 



Caesar — The seventy disciples sent out two by two to 
preach and work miracles. 

The disciples taught to pray — Lazarus raised from the 
dead — Caiaphas's prophecy concerning the death of 
Christ — Conversion of Zaccheus — Bartimeus re- 
stored to sight — Mary, the sister of Lazarus, anoints 
the feet of Jesus— The triumphal entry of Christ 
into Jerusalem — He curses the fig-tree — The fourth 
Passover celebrated — The sacrament of the Lord's 
Supper instituted — Christ washes the disciples' feet 
— Christ is betrayed by Judas — Next day condemned 
by Pilate and crucified— The third day (April 5th, 
A. D. 33,) he rises from the dead — Appears first to 
Mary Magdalene — Afterwards appears to his disci- 
ples, and dines with them — Promises to them the 
effusion of the Holy* Ghost — Commissions them to 
teach and baptize all nations — Ascends from Mount 
Olivet to heaven — The day of Pentecost — Gift of 
tongues — 3,000 converted — Peter and John cast tnto 
prison — Ananias and Sapphira struck dead. 

Seven deacons ordained — Stephen stoned to death — 
Great persecution — Philip preaches in Samaria — 
Simon, the sorcerer, believes, and is baptized. 

The Ethiopian converted and baptized — Saul is con- 
verted on his way to Damascus — Preaches the gospel. 

A conspiracy against Saul — Receives instructions to 
leave Jerusalem — Goes to Tarsus, Cilicia, and Syria 
— Peter visits the Churches of Judea, Samaria, and 
Galilee — Cures Eneas, and restores Tabitha to life. 

Cornelius instructed to send for Peter — He is converted 
and baptized— The disciples from Phenice and Cy- 
prus come to Antioch — Send for Barnabas — He and 
Saul preach there a whole year — Disciples first called 
Christians. 

Herod Agrippa beheads James — Imprisons Peter 
— He is smitten of God at Cesarea, and eaten of 
worms. 

Barnabas and Saul start out and plant the Christian 
faith in Seleucia, Cyprus, and other places — Sergius 
Paulus — Elymas, the sorcerer, struck blind — Saul's 
name changed to Paul — They preach at Antioch and 
Iconium. 

Persecuted, they fly to Lystra and Derbe, in Lycaonia — 
Are called gods : Barnabas, Jupiter ; and Paul, Mer- 
curius — Paul stoned and dragged out of Lystra as 
dead — Next day departs with Barnabas to Derbe — 
Timothy, a child, embraces the Christian faith. 

Judaizing teachers introduce circumcision— Council 
held at Jerusalem to settle the matter — Decrees of 
the council sent to the Churches. 

Paul and Barnabas, disagreeing, separate — Barnabas 
and Mark go into Cyprus, and Paul and Silas go into 
Syria and Cilicia — Paul takes Timothy from Derbe— 
His mother being a believing Jew, he causes him to 
be circumcised — He is admonished by a vision to go 
into Macedonia — Arrives at Philippi — Lydia con- 
verted—Paul and Silas imprisoned — Miraculously 
delivered — Philippian jailer converted. 

They journey through Amphipolis and Apollonia— 
Come to Thessalonica — Go to Berea, and thence to 

16 



362 



MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE, 



SEVENTH AGE. 



YEAE. 



A.M. 

4054 



4055 
4056 

4057 

4058 
4060 



4062 

4063 
4064 
40f)5 
4066 



4067 
4070 



4096 



EVENTS. 



Athens — Dionysius, the Areopagite, converted — 
Goes to Corinth — Meets Aquila and Priscilla, who 
had been banished from Rome — Remains here a 
year and six months — Writes to the Thessalonians. 

Accused by the Jews, and brought before Gallio, pro- 
consul of Achaia. 

Leaves Corinth and goes to Ephesus — From thence 
to Jerusalem — Goes to Cesarea, Antioch, Galatia, 
and Phrygia. 

Returns to Ephesus, and disputes daily in the school 
of Tyrannus. 

Writes his epistle to the Galatians. 

Demetrius, a silversmith, opposes him — A schism arises 
in the Church at Corinth — He writes his First Epistle 
to the Corinthians — Leaves Ephesus and goes to 
Macedonia — Writes his second letter — Goes to Cor- 
inth, and writes his letter to the Romans — Goes to 
Philippi, and from thence to Troas, where he re- 
stores Eutychus to life— Goes to Miletus— Goes to 
Jerusalem — Is apprehended and imprisoned in the 
castle — Claims the privilege of a Roman citizen — 
Pleads his cause before Ananias, high-priest — He is 
sent to Felix — Imprisoned at Cesarea. 

Accused before Felix by Tertullus, the orator — Paul 
before Festus — Appeals t.o Caesar — Paul makes his 
defence before King Agrippa. 

Taken to Rome, a prisoner at large, where he preaches 
two years. 

From Rome Paul writes to the Philippians, to Phile- 
mon, to the Colossians, and to the Ephesians. 

He is set at liberty, and writes to the Hebrews — 
Preaches the gospel in the Isle of Crete. 

Writes his letters to Timothy and Titus — Peter writes 
his letters — St. John and St. Jude write about this 
time. 

St. Peter and St. Paul suffer martyrdom. 

Jerusalem besieged, taken, sacked, and burned by 
Titus— 1,100,000 Jews perish ; 97,000 are taken pris- 
oners 

St. John is banished to the Isle of Patmos by Domi- 
tian — Writes his Revelation — Returns to Ephesus, 
and, at the request of the Church, writes his Gospel. 



REMARKS. 



Herculaneum 
and Pompeii 
destroyed. 



Here the events connected with Bible chronology end. 
Those of a collateral character might have been more copi- 
ously adduced, but what we have given are thought to be 
sufficient for all the purposes of the present work. 



BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



Under this head we propose to give the names of the prin- 
cipal countries of the Bible, embracing the mountains, seas, 
lakes, rivers, cities, towns, &c, <fec. We shall present them 
in alphabetical order, and briefly notice whatever is remark- 
able as connected with the localities enumerated. 

As most of the scenes of the Bible lie in Palestine, it may 
not be improper, in this place, to make some remarks in re- 
gard to the climate and face of the country. 

The state of the atmosphere is different in different places, 
but it is not so changeable as in some parts of Europe. Du- 
ring the first part of the year, which is called the harvest, 
extending from the middle of April to the middle of June, 
the sky is serene, the atmosphere is warm — sometimes op- 
pressively so — excepting in the valleys, or on the shores of 
the sea, where it is temperate. During the second part of 
the year, which is called summer, extending from the middle 
of June to the middle of August, the heat is intense, and the 
inhabitants sleep, in the night, under the open sky. The 
third season, from the middle of August to the middle of 
October, is called the hot season, for then the heat has reached 
its greatest intensity ; but it soon abates. From the time 
of harvest, or from the middle of April to the middle of Sep- 
tember, there is neither rain nor thunder. Prov. xxvi, 1 ; 
1 Sam. xii, 17. In the months of May, June, July, and 
August, not a cloud is to be seen, and the earth is only 
moistened with the dew, which is everywhere used as a 
symbol of the divine benevolence. Gen. xxvii, 28 ; xlix, 25 ; 
Deut. xxxii, 2; xxxiii, 13; Job xxix, 19; Micah v, 7. The 



364 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

fourth part of the year is called the seed-time. It extends 
from the middle of October to the middle of December. 
The autumnal rains begin in the latter part of October. The 
leaves fall in the latter part of November, and the snow in 
December. Some do without fire the whole winter. The 
fifth part of the year extends from the middle of December 
to the middle of February, which is called the winter. The 
snow soon melts away, and only remains on the mountains. 
As January departs, and February enters, the grain-fields 
flourish, and the trees put on their foliage. The sixth period 
is called the cold season, because, in the commencement of it, 
the weather is still cold, though it lasts but for a short time. 

Palestine is a mountainous country. Two ranges, the one 
on the east and the other on the west of the Jordan, extend 
from Syria into Arabia, interrupted, however, in various 
places, by valleys. The principal mountains are Lebanon, 
Carmel, Tabor, Mountains of Israel, and the Mountains of 
Gilead. 

Abana — A river in Syria, spoken of by Naaman the 
leper, when he was directed to wash away his leprosy in 
Jordan. 

Abarim — A mountain in Palestine, on the summit of 
which Balak and Balaam had an interview, and the latter 
was entreated to curse the Israelites, who were encamped in 
the plain. 

Abdon, or Hebron — A city of the Levites, in Palestine. 

Abel — A town or province in Palestine, of which Lysa- 
nias was tetrarch. 

Abel of the vineyards — in Palestine ; the place where Jeph- 
thah smote the Ammonites. 

Abel, Plain of. 

Abel of Beth-Maachah — Palestine. Joab pursued Sheba 
to this place, who was afterwards slain. 

A bel-Maim — Palestine. Taken by Benh adad, king of Syria. 

Abel-Meholah — Palestine. Here the Midianites were routed 
by the Israelites, under Gideon. 



BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 365 

Abel-Mizraim — Palestine. Here Joseph mourned seven 
days for Jacob his father. 

Abel-Shittim — Palestine ; an encampment of the Israelites, 
on the plains of Moab. 

Aben-Bohan — Palestine ; a boundary-stone between Ben- 
jamin and Judah. 

Abez — Palestine ; a boundary-town between Issachar and 
Manasseh. 

Abila, or Abel — Palestine. 

Abilene — Syria. Lysanias was tetrarch of this place. 

Abimael — Persia. 

Abumah — Palestine. 

Accad — A city in Turkey, built by Nimrod. 

Accaron, or Ekron — Palestine. The Canaanites were never 
expelled from this place. 

Accho, or St Jean cPAcre — Palestine. The Canaanites 
were never expelled from this city. 

Aceldama — Palestine ; a field purchased by Judas for the 
price of his Lord. 

Achaia — Turkey. Here Paul was accused before Gallio. 

Achmetha, or Ecbatana — Persia. Here the records were 
found, relating to the rebuilding of Jerusalem. 

Achor — A valley in Palestine, where Achan was stoned 
by the children of Israel. 

Achshaph — A Levitical city of Palestine. 

Achzib — Palestine. The Canaanites were never expelled 
from this city. 

Acrabbim — The southern boundary of Judea. 

Adadah — Palestine. 

Adam — Palestine. From this place to the Dead Sea the 
waters of the Jordan were dried up, during the passage of 
the Israelites. 

Adamah — A fortified city of Palestine. 

Adar — A boundary-town between Edom and Judah, in 
Palestine. 

Adithaim — Palestine. 



366 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Admah — One of the cities of Palestine, in the valley of 
Siddim, destroyed by fire. 

Adoraim — A city of Palestine, built by Rehoboam. 

Adramyttium — Turkey. 

Adria — The Mediterranean. Here Paul was shipwrecked. 

Adullam — Palestine. In a cave, near this city, David hid 
himself when pursued by Saul. 

Adummim — Palestine. 

jEnon, or Enon — The fountain of On, in Palestine, where 
John baptized. 

Ahava — A river of Assyria. Here Ezra proclaimed a fast, 
previous to the return of the Israelites. 

Ahlab — Palestine. 

A% or Hai — Palestine. Taken and burned by Joshua. 

Aia th — Palestine. 

Aijalon — Palestine. Elon, one of the judges of Israel, was 
buried here. 

Aijalon, or Aiaja — A city of the Levites, where the Philis- 
tines were subdued by Samuel. 

Aijalon — A valley of Palestine, where the sun and moon 
stood still, at the command of Joshua. 

Ain, or Oin — Palestine. 

Ain, or Ashan — A Levitical city. 

Ain — A valley. 

Alemeth — A Levitical city. 

Alexandria — A city of Egypt, from whence St. Paul sailed 
for Rome. 

Allon — Palestine. 

Alton- Bachuth — Palestine. Here Deborah, the nurse of 
Rebecca, was buried. 

Almodad — Persia. A colony of Joktan, son of Shem. 

Almon-Diblathaim — Palestine. A station of the Israelites. 

Aloth, District of- — A territory in Palestine, under the 
government of one of Solomon's purveyors. 

Alush — An encampment of the Israelites, in Arabia. 

AmaleJc — Arabia. 



BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 367 

Amandj or Anti-Lebanon — On Mount Lebanon ; celebrated 
for the growth of its cedars. 

Ammah — A hill in Palestine, to which Joab and Abishai 
pursued Abner. 

Amnion- Ham — Palestine. 

Ammon-No — Egypt. 

Amorites, Mount of — Turkey. The Canaanites were never 
expelled from this place. 

Amphipolis — Turkey. Paul preached in this city. 

Anab — Palestine. From this place Joshua cut off the An- 
akims. 

Anaharath — A boundary-town between Issachar and Ma- 
nasseh. 

Ananiah — Palestine. 

Anamim — Egypt ; a colony of Mizraim. 

Anathoth — A Levitical city in Palestine. Jeremiah had 
a possession here. 

Anem — A Levitical city. 

Antioch — Syria. Disciples first called Christians at this 
city. Here Paul and Barnabas separated. Here Paul was 
stoned, but afterwards recovered. 

Antipatris — Syria. From here Paul was sent to Cesarea. 

Antonia, Castle of — Syria. At this place Paul was confined, 
previously to being sent to Felix. 

ApheJc — Syria. The Canaanites were never expelled from 
this place. 

Aphekah — Syria. Here the Philistines overcame the Is- 
raelites. 

ApheJc in Syria — Here the Syrians, and thirty-two kings, 
under Benhadad, were defeated by Ahab. 

Apollonia — Syria. Paul visited this city, on his way to 
Thessalonica. 

Appii-Forum — Italy. Here Paul was met by his brethren, 
on the way to Rome. 

Arab — Syria. This place was given, by command of Je- 
hovah, to Lot. 



368 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Arabah — Syria. A boundary-town of Benjamin. 

Arabia — Through part of this country (Arabia Petrsea,) 
the Israelites, under Moses, wandered for forty years. 

Arad — Syria. A royal city, and one of the thirty-one 
kingdoms subdued by Joshua. 

Aram, or Padan Aram — Mesopotamia. The country of 
Nahor, Abram, Jacob, &c. 

Aram — Syria. 

Ararat, or Armenia — Erivan. 

Ararat, Mount— Armenia. On this mount the ark rested 
after the Deluge, and from thence the descendants of Noah 
peopled the earth. 

Arba — Syria. The place of Abraham and Isaac's sojourn- 
ing. 

Arbak. 

Arbel — Syria. 

Archi — Syria. A boundary-town. 

Areopolis — Syria. 

Argob — Syria. This place was under the government of 
one of Solomon's purveyors. 

Argob, Regions of— Syria. The cities of which were taken 
by the Israelites. 

Ariel, Jebus, Salem — Palestine. Ancient capital of the 
East, and the birth-place of Solomon. 

Arimathea — Palestine. The birth-place of Joseph the 
counsellor. 

Arkites, Country of the — Syria. A colony of Canaan, a 
son of Ham. 

Armageddon — Palestine ; mountains and valley of. 

Armenia, or Ararat — Erivan. 

Arnon, Fords of— Palestine. These waters are said to have 
divided for the passage of the Israelites. 

Arnon, River — Syria. 

Aroer — Palestine. A city built by the children of 
Gad. 

Aroer — Palestine. A city which David smote. 



BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 369 

Arpad — Syria. A place of the grossest idolatry. 

Arphaxad — Turkey. 

Arvad — Syria. Celebrated for its shipping in the time 
of Solomon. 

Aruboth — Turkey. Under the government of one of 
Solomon's purveyors. 

Arwnah — Palestine. The place where Abimelech dwelt. 

Ashan — Palestine. A city of the Levites. 

Ashdod, or Azotus — Palestine. A place of idol-worship. 
The Philistines placed the ark here, in the temple of Dagon. 
Here Philip was found, after the conversion of the eunuch. 

Ashdoth-Pisgah — Palestine. 

Asher — Palestine. A boundary of Manasseh. 

Ashfcenaz — Turkey. 

Ashlcmaz, Sea of, (Pontus Euxinus) — Turkey and Russia. 

Ash taro th — Palestine. 

Ashteroth Karnaim — Palestine. Here Chedorlaomer smote 
the Rephaims, or giants. 

Asia (Proper) — Turkey. 

Asia Minor — Turkey. 

Ashelon or Ashhelon — Palestine. Taken from the Philis- 
tines by the tribe of Judah. Here Samson gave his marriage- 
feast, propounded his riddle, and smote thirty of the Philis- 
tines. 

Asshur, or Assyria — Persia. 

Assos — Turkey. A port of Asia Minor, in which the gos- 
pel was generally diffused. 

Atad — Turkey. Here the Israelites mourned over the 
body of Jacob seven days. 

Ataroth — Turkey. A boundary between Gad and Reuben. 

Athens — Greece. Here Paul found an altar to the un- 
known God, and preached on Mars' Hill. 

Ather — Syria. 

Alroth — Palestine. 

Attalia — Turkey. Paul and Barnabas here took ship for 
Antioch. 

16* 



370 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Ava — Persia. A place of captivity. 

Avert — Turkey. Denounced by the prophet Amos. 

Aven — Palestine. The Philistines sent the ark of the 
covenant to this place. 

Aven, or Beth-Shemesh — Egypt. Pharaoh gave Asenath, 
a daughter of the high-priest of this place, to Joseph. 

Avim — Palestine. 

Azekah — Palestine. Here the Amorites were defeated by 
Joshua. 

Azmon — Palestine. A boundary-town between Judah and 
Arabia. 

Azza, or Gaza — Palestine. This was the capital of the 
country of the Philistines. 

Baal, high places of — Palestine. 

Baalak, or Kirjath-jearlm — Palestine. 

Baalak, Mount — Palestine. 

Baal-Berith — Palestine. 

Baal- Gad, Mountain and town of. 

Baal-Hamon — Palestine. At this place Solomon had 
vineyards. 

Baal-Hazor — Palestine. Here Absalom killed Amnon. 

Baal-Meon — Palestine. A fenced city of Gad. A place 
of idolatry. 

Baal-Peor — Palestine. Here Balaam came to curse Israel. 

Baal- Per azim — Palestine. Here David smote the Philis- 
tines. 

Baal-Shalisha — Palestine. The inhabitants of this place 
sent presents to Elisha, at Gilgal. South of this place stood 
Micah's house of idolatry. 

Baal-Tamar — Palestine. Here the Israelites smote the 
Benjamites. 

Baal-Zephon — Egypt. Opposite this place the Israelites 
pitched their tents, previous to passing through the Red Sea. 

Babel, or Babylon — Turkey. Here the Lord confounded 
the language of the children of Noah during the building of 
the Tower of Babel 



BIBLICAL GEOUKAfHY. 37l 

Babylon, or Babel. The royal city of the kings of Assyria. 
The place of the captivity of the children of Israel. 

Babylonia, or Chaldea — Turkey. 

Baca, Valley of — Palestine. Celebrated for its mulberry- 
trees. 

Bahurim — Palestine. At this place Shiraei cursed David. 

Bamoth — Palestine. An encampment of the Israelites. 

Bashan — Palestine. Celebrated for its large oak-trees. 

Bashan-Havoth. All the cities in this country were taken 
by Jair, the son of Manasseh. 

Bashan, Hill of — Palestine. 

Bealoth — Palestine. A boundary -town between Judah 
and Dan. 

Beer, or Beer-Elim — Syria. Here the Israelites halted, 
and sang praises, after finding water. 

Beer, or Beeroth — Palestine. Here Jotham, the son of 
J erubbaal, secreted himself from his brother Abimelech, who 
sought to slay him. 

Beer-lahai-roi — Palestine. Here an angel appeared unto 
Hagar, and promised her a son, who was called Ishmael. 

Beersheba — Palestine. Here Abram planted a grove, and 
built an altar, after his covenant with Abimelech, king of 
Gerar, to whom he represented his wife as being his sister. 

Beersheba, Wilderness of — Here the angel appeared unto 
Hagar, and pointed out a spring of water. 

Bela, or Zoar — Arabia. One of the cities of the plain, 
from which Lot and his two daughters fled, previous to its 
destruction by fire. 

Bene-Berak — Syria. 

Bene-Jaakan — Arabia. A station of the Israelites. 

Berachah, Valley of — Palestine. The place of thanks- 
giving of Jehoshaphat and his army, after they had defeated 
the Moabites in Seir. 

Berea— Turkey. Here Paul and Silas preached. . 

Berotha — Turkey. David conquered this city, and found 
great treasures of brass. 



3*72 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Besor, River — Here David met with an Egyptian, who 
conducted him to the army of the Amalekites. 

Besor, Desert of — Palestine. 

Betah — Turkey. 

Beten — Palestine. 

Bethabara — Palestine. Here John baptized our Lord, 
and here the ark rested, while the Israelites passed the Jor- 
dan. 

Bethanah — Palestine. A fenced city. 

Bethany — Palestine. This was the abode of Lazarus and 
his sisters. Here Christ cursed the fig-tree. 

Beth-Arabah — Palestine. A boundary-town. 

Betharabel — Palestine. Denounced by the prophet Ho- 
sea. 

Beth -Avert — Palestine. From this place Joshua sent spies 
to Ai, which city he afterwards subdued. 

Beth -Avert, Wilderness of — Palestine. Near this place the 
children who derided Elisha were destroyed by two bears. 

Beth-Barah — Palestine. Gideon took possession of the 
countries between this place and Jordan. 

Beth- Car — Palestine. The Philistines were subdued by 
the Israelites at this place. 

Beth-Dagon — Palestine. A boundary-town on the bor- 
ders of Syria. 

Bethel, or Luz — Palestine. Here Jacob dreamed that he 
saw a ladder, and set up his pillow of stone as a pillar of 
testimony. 

Bethel, Mountains of — Palestine. At this place a great 
battle was fought, between the Israelites and Philistines. 

Bethel, Wilderness of — Palestine. 

Bethesda, Pool of — Miraculous waters. Here Christ healed 
a man who had been waiting thirty-eight years. 

Beth-Jeshimoth — Palestine. An encampment of the Is- 
raelites. 

Bethlehem-Ephratah — Palestine. The birth-place of our 
Saviour. Here David was crowned king by Samuel. 



BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. Sl3 

Beth-Maachah — Syria. This city was taken from the Is- 
raelites by Benhadad, king of Syria. 

Bethmillo — Syria. Here Abimelech was made king. 

Bethonndba — Syria. A city of the priests. Here Abi- 
melech, the priest, furnished bread, and the sword of Goli- 
ath, to David, when he was pursued by Saul. 

Bethphage — Syria. From this place Christ made his tri- 
umphant entry into Jerusalem. 

Beth-Rehob — Syria. A city of the Levites. 

Bethsaida of Galilee. At this place Christ restored sight 
to a blind man. 

Bethsaida, or Chorazin — Syria. Denounced by Christ on 
account of the unbelief of its inhabitants. 

Bethshalisha — Syria. See Baal-shalisha. 

Bethskan — Syria. A principal city of Decapolis. The 
bodies of Saul and his three sons were fastened to the walls 
of this city by the Philistines. 

Bethshemesh. An idolatrous city of Egypt. 

Bethshittah — Syria. The Midianites fled to this city 
when pursued by Gideon. 

BezeJc — Palestine. At this place the kingdom of Israel 
was confirmed to Saul. 

Bezek. At this place Judah defeated the Canaananites 
and Perizzites. 

Bezer, or Bozrah, in the wilderness of Palestine. A city 
of refuge, and a city of the Levites. 

Bithynia — Turkey. Paul and Timotheus were prevented 
by the Spirit from visiting this country. 

Boaz, Field of — Syria. Here Boaz first saw Ruth. 

Boscath — Syria. The birth-place of Jedidah, Josiah's 
mother. 

Bozez, Bock of — Syria. This rock formed a pass, and here 
Jonathan and his armour-bearer smote twenty Philistines. 
Afterwards the lot was cast between Saul and Jonathan. 
Near this place Samuel anointed Saul. 

Bozrah. A capital city of Syria. 



3*74 MANUAL UJb' BIBLICAL LITJEKATURE. 

Buz — Turkey. A city in alliance with the princes of 
Edom. 

Cabul — Palestine. Given by Solomon to Hiram king of 
Tyre for sixscore talents of gold. 

Calah — Turkey. Built by Asshur. 

Caleb — Palestine. Here Hezron, one of the judges of Is- 
rael, died. 

Caleb' ] s Land. Caleb's Field and Tomb. 

Calneh — Turkey. A city built by Nimrod. 

Calvary, Mount. This was the common place of execution 
in Judea. Here Christ was crucified. 

Camon — Palestine. Jair, a judge of Israel, was buried 
here. 

Carta of Galilee. Here the Saviour performed his first 
miracle by turning water into wine. 

Canaan — Palestine. The scene of the principal events 
recorded in the Scriptures. 

Capernaum — Palestine. The place where Christ com- 
menced his public ministry. 

Caphar-Sorek — Palestine. The residence of Delilah be- 
fore she became the wife of Samson. 

Caphtorim — Lower Egypt. 

Cappadocia — Turkey. A country visited by Paul. 

Carbon — Syria. 

Carchemesh — Turkey. Besieged and taken by Nebu- 
chadnezzar. 

Carta — Turkey. The coast visited by Paul. 

Caria, Sea of — Mediterranean. Sailed over by St. Paul. 

Carmel — Palestine. Here Nabal had possessions, and 
Abigail his wife sent presents to David. 

Carmel, Mount. On this mount Elijah was answered by 
fire from heaven. 

Casiphia — Persia. The country from whence Ezra 
brought the Nethinims to Jerusalem. 

Casiphia, Sea of — Persia. The Caspian Sea. 

Cedron or Kedron. David, in fleeing from Absalom, 



BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 3*75 

crossed this brook, and Christ crossed it to enter the garden 
where he was betrayed. 

Cedron, Fields of To this place the idolatrous images and 
vessels were taken from the temple at Jerusalem and des- 
troyed by order of Josiah. 

Cenchrea — Greece. The port where Paul performed his 
vow. 

Cesarea Philippi — Palestine. Here our Saviour revealed 
himself to his disciples. 

Cesarea. Here Peter preached the gospel to Cornelius 
and his household. 

Chabor — Persia. A place of captivity under Tilgath-pil- 
neser. 

Chaldea or Babylonia — Turkey. This was the country 
where Daniel prophesied. 

Charran — Turkey. Here Abraham sojourned and re- 
ceived the command to go to Canaan. 

Chebar, River — Turkey. Here Ezekiel had his visions. 

Chemosh — Palestine. A place of idol worship built by 
Solomon. 

Cherith, Brook of — Palestine. Here Elijah was fed by 
the ravens. 

Chezib — Palestine. The birth-place of Shelah. 

Chimham — Palestine. The residence of Chimham. 

Chios, Isle of — Levant. An island where St. Paul touched 
on his way to Miletus. 

Chor-Ashan — Palestine. To the inhabitants of this city 
David sent the spoil which he had taken from the Amalekites. 

Chun — Palestine. David took the shields of gold from 
the inhabitants of this place. 

Cilicia — Turkey. A country visited by St. Paul, and the 
place of his nativity. 

Cinnereth, Lake of Gennesareth — Palestine. On this sea 
and on the coasts thereof, Christ wrought many miracles. 
Here Peter walked on the water. Here also Christ stilled 
the tempest. 



376 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

City of Palm-trees, or Jericho — Palestine. The Israelites 
were conquered at this place by Eglon, king of Moab, for 
their disobedience. 

Clauda, Isle of — Mediterranean. An island under which 
Paul sailed with danger, on his way to Rome. 

Corinth — Greece. Here Paul became acquainted with 
Aquila, and here he resolved to go to the Gentiles. 

Cuth — Russia. A place of idol-worship. 

Cyprus, Isle of — Mediterranean. The birth-place of 
Barnabas. 

Gyrene — Barbary. The birth-place of Simon, who bore 
the cross of the Saviour. 

Dalmanutha — Palestine. Visited by the Saviour after he 
had performed the miracle of the loaves and fishes. 

Dalmatia — Turkey. Here Titus ministered the gospel. 

Damascus — Syria. Near this place Abram defeated the 
armies under Chedorlaomer. Near this place Saul was mi- 
raculously converted. 

Dan — Palestine, near the springs of Jordan. 

Danneh — Palestine. A city in the mountains. 

David, City of The southern part of Jerusalem, which 
was built by David. 

Dead Sea — Palestine. This was formerly the plain of 
Jordan, and the most fertile and beautiful valley in the 
world. 

Debir — Palestine. A city taken by Joshua. 

Decapolis — Palestine. A country which was visited by 
the Saviour. 

Derbe — Turkey. Visited by Paul immediately after he 
was stoned. 

Dothan — Palestine. Here Joseph was sold by his breth- 
ren to the Ishmaelites, and here the army which came to 
take Elisha was smitten with blindness. 

Dumah — Palestine. 

Dung Gate. An eastern gate of Jerusalem repaired by 
Nehemiah. 



BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 3*1 1 

Dura, Plain of. Here Nebuchadnezzar set up his image, 
ninety feet high, for refusing to worship which, the three 
Hebrew children were cast into the furnace of fire and were 
preserved. 

East Country — Media and Persia. The country from 
whence Abram came. 

Ebal, Mount — Turkey. Here Moses pronounced twelve 
curses, and Joshua erected an altar for burnt-offerings. 

Ebenezer, stone called — Palestine. Here the Israelites 
defeated the Philistines. 

Eber — Persia. A colony of Arphaxad. 

Ed— Syria. An altar erected by the Israelites in testi- 
mony of their vows to God. 

Edar, Tower of — Persia. The tents of Israel were spread 
near this spot for a temporary residence. This tower is sup- 
posed to have been occupied by the shepherds at the time 
the angels announced the birth of Christ to them. 

Eden, Garden of — Turkey. Its present location supposed 
to be on the banks of the Arab River, not far from the mouth 
of the Euphrates. Here God created Adam and Eve. 

Edom — Arabia. 

Eglaim — Arabia. Referred to by Ezekiel. 

Eglon — Palestine. 

Egypt, or Land of Ham. Here Moses was miraculously 
preserved from death in infancy, as also our Lord by the flight 
of Joseph and Mary. It was also the scene of Joseph's life. 

Ekron — Syria. Here the ark rested on its way to Ashdod. 

Elah, Valley of. Here David slew Goliath. 

Elam or Persia. 

Elam in Syria. 

Elath — Arabia. A principal sea-port from whence Solo- 
mon brought gold from Ophir. 

El-Bethel — Palestine. Jacob erected an altar here when 
he fled from Esau. 

El-Elohe-Israel. An altar erected by Jacob in the Prom- 
ised Land. 



378 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Elim — Palestine. An encampment of the Israelites 
where there were twelve wells and seventy palm-trees. 

Elisha, Isles of — Levant. Celebrated for the production 
of blue and purple linen. 

Elkosh — Palestine. The birth-place of Nahum the 
prophet. 

Emmaus — Palestine. A village near Jerusalem to which 
two of the disciples were journeying on the day of the res- 
urrection when Christ appeared to them and talked with 
them. 

Endor — Palestine. Here Saul invoked a witch to raise 
Samuel, who appeared and announced the destruction of 
his army and his own death with that of his sons next 
day. 

En-Eglaim — Arabia. 

Engedi — Palestine. Here David took refuge in a cave, 
and here he spared the life of Saul. 

En-Hakkore — Palestine. Here Samson slew one thou- 
sand men with the jaw-bone of an ass. 

Enon — Palestine. Here John baptized. 

Enrogel — Jerusalem. Here Adonijah usurped the king- 
dom of David, and here he was slain by the order of Sol- 
omon. 

Ephesus — Turkey. One of the seven Churches. 

Ephraim, Mount Here Joshua the son of Nun had an 
inheritance. 

Ephraim y Wood of. Here Joab killed Absalom. 

Ephraim or Ephron — Palestine. Here Jesus retired with 
his disciples after raising Lazarus. 

Ephrath — Palestine. Near this city Rachel died and was 
buried. 

Ephron, Field of — Palestine. In which was the cave 
where Abraham and Sarah were buried. 

Erbonah — Arabia. A station of the Israelites. 

Eselc. A well dug by the servants of Isaac near Beer- 
sheba. 



BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 379 

Eskcol — Palestine. From this place the spies sent by 
Moses brought grapes and pomegranates. 

Eshtaol — Palestine. Samson was born and buried be- 
tween this place and Zorah. 

Etam, Rock of — Palestine. Here three thousand men of 
Judah assembled against Samson. 

Etham. A part of the Desert of Arabia where the Israel- 
ites wandered forty years. 

Ethiopia — Turkey. 

Euphrates — Turkey. A principal river of Eden. 

Ezel, Stone of — Palestine. Here David and Jonathan 
made a covenant together. 

Ezion-Geber — Arabia. A port for Solomon's navy. 

Fair Havens — Mediterranean. A port touched at by 
Paul on his voyage to Rome. 

Fish-gate — Jerusalem. Rebuilt by the son of Hassenaah. 

Fuller's Field — Palestine. Here Isaiah met Ahaz, and 
predicted that a virgin should conceive. 

Gaashj Valley and Brooks of — Palestine. An inheritance 
of Joshua. 

Gaash, Hill of Here Joshua was buried. 

Gadara — Palestine. Here Christ dispossessed of the evil 
spirits the man who dwelt among the tombs, 

Galatia — Turkey. Here St. Paul preached the gospel 
and established a Church. 

Gilead — Palestine. Jacob made a covenant with Laban 
at this place. 

Galilee. One of the principal divisions of the Holy Land. 
The scene of the principal events in the life of Christ, and 
the place appointed by him previous to his death for an in- 
terview after his resurrection with his disciples. 

Galilee, Sea of A body of fresh water seventeen miles 
long and eight broad, abounding in fish. 

Gath — Palestine. David fears Saul, feigns himself mad, 
and goes to the king of this place. 

Gath-Hepher — Palestine. The birth-place of Jonah. 



380 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Gaza — Palestine. Samson carried away the gates of this 
city to the top of a hill. 

Geba — Palestine. Here Jonathan smote the garrison of 
the Philistines. 

Gebal — Arabia. A seaport of Syria. 

Gennesaret — Palestine. The sick were healed here by 
touching the hem of Christ's garment. 

Gerar — Palestine. The dwelling-place of Isaac during 
the famine. Here he denied his wife. 

Gergesa — Palestine. Here Christ performed the miracle 
of the swine. 

Gerizim, Mount — Palestine. Here Moses pronounced 
twelve blessings, Joshua wrote the law of Moses on stone, 
and Jotham delivered his parable of the trees. 

Geshur — Palestine. Absalom fled to this place after kill- 
ing his brother Amnon. 

Gethsemane — Palestine. An occasional uesort of Christ. 
The scene of his agony and the place of his betrayal. 

Gezer — Palestine. The king of this city with the whole 
of his army was defeated by Joshua. 

Gibeah — Palestine. At this place the Levite slew his con- 
cubine. Saul dwelt here, and seven of his sons were slain 
by the inhabitants. 

Gibeon — Palestine. Five kings of the Amorites slain here 
by a hail-storm. During the battle the sun and moon stood 
still. 

Giblum — Syria. The Giblites were employed by Solo- 
mon to prepare stones and timber for the temple. 

Gidom — Palestine. The Benjamites were smitten by the 
children of Israel and pursued hither. 

Gihon, River — Persia. The second river in Eden. 

Gihon, Fountain of. Solomon was here anointed. 

Gilboa, Mount. The scene of Saul's death — cursed. 

Gilead — Palestine. The place where Joseph was sold. 

Gilead, Ramoth. A city of refuge. 

GilgaL This was the first place taken by Joshua west of 



BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 381 

tlie Jordan. Here Samuel hewed Agag king of the Ama- 
lekites to pieces. 

Gffloh — Palestine. The birth-place of Ahithophel, the 
counsellor of David. 

Goath, Valley of. Between Jerusalem and Mount Car- 
mel, and declared to be holy unto the Lord forever. 

Gog. — Russia. A colony of Japheth. 

Golan — Palestine. A city of refuge. 

Golgotha, or Calvary — Palestine. 

Gomorrah — Palestine. One of the cities of the plain and 
destroyed by fire from heaven. 

Goshen — Palestine. Here Joshua defeated the Canaanites. 

Goshen — Egypt. Here Joseph received his brethren. 
This land was exempted from the plagues which were in- 
flicted by the Almighty on other parts of Egypt. 

Gozan — Persia. A place of captivity. 

Great Sea — Mediterranean — Navigated by Paul. 

Greece or Achaia. 

Gur — Palestine. At this place Jehu smote Ahaziah, after 
which he fled to Megiddo and died. 

Gur-Baal — Palestine. Uzziah smote the Arabians that 
dwelt in this place. 

Habor — Persia. Pul and Tiglath carried the Reubenites, 
Gadites, and half tribe of Manasseh, captives to this place. 

Halah — Russia. The Israelites were carried captive to 
this place. 

Ham, Land of. Includes the whole of Africa, Arabia, and 
part of Persia. 

Hamath. A kingdom of Syria. 

Harnath — Palestine. Northern boundary. 

Hammon-Gog — Palestine. Ezekiel prophesied that this 
should be the burial-place of Gog and his multitude. 

Hapharim — Arabia. A station of the Israelites. 

Haran — Mesopotamia. Terah, Abram and family, re- 
sided here. 

Hareth, Forest of — Palestine. Here Saul commanded his 



382 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

servants to slay the priests of the Lord. They refusing, 
Doeg the Edoraite killed eighty-five of them. 

Harod, Well of. Here the Midianites fell by the hand of 
Gideon — the stratagem of lamps and pitchers. 

Harosheth — Palestine. Sisera's vast army was defeated 
here by Deborah and Barak. Jael slew him by driving a 
nail through his head. 

Havilah — Turkey. A part of the land of Eden. 

Hazerim — Arabia. The dwelling-place of the Avims. 

Hazeroth — Arabia. A station of the Israelites. Here 
Miriam was struck with leprosy. 

Hazor — Syria. The tent of Jael was near here. 

Hebron — Palestine. A city of refuge. Here Sarah died. 
Here Joab killed Abner, and David wept over his grave. 

Hebron, Vale of — Palestine. Here Joseph was thrown 
into the pit. 

Helam — Palestine. At this place David conquered the 
Syrians. J. 

Helbah — Palestine. t The Canaanites were never expelled 
from this place. 

Helbon — Syria. Celebrated for its wine and white-wood. 

Helkath — Palestine. Here twelve valiant men of Ish- 
bosheth and David slew each other. 

Hepher — Palestine. The king of this place was taken by 
Joshua. 

Heres, Mount — Palestine. The Amorites kept possession 
of this place in despite of the Israelites. 

Heshbon — Palestine. A city of the Amorites taken by 
Joshua. The fish-pool was here. 

Hiddekel, River. One of the rivers of Paradise. 

Hierapolis — Turkey. 

Hill Country — Palestine. The city of Hebron was here. 

Hinnom, Valley of — Palestine. Jeremiah declared that 
it should be called the Valley of Slaughter, because the Jew- 
ish parents offered children in sacrifice to Moloch in this 
place. 



BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 383 

Hobah — Syria. At this place Abram gained a victory 
over Chedorlaomer and his allies. 

Hor Mount, or Seir — Arabia. Here Aaron, after being 
stripped of bis priestly robes by Moses, died and was buried. 

Horeb — Arabia. Here God commanded Moses to strike 
the rock to supply the Israelites with water. 

Hormah, or Zephath — Palestine. Here the Israelites were 
smitten by the Amalekites and Canaanites. 

Hukok — Palestine. A Levitical city. 

Hur — Palestine. Smitten by the Israelites under Moses. 

Ibleam — Palestine. A city of the Levites. 

Iconium — Anadolia. In the province of Lycaonia. Here 
St. Paul preached in the synagogue. 

Idumea, or Edom — Arabia. The Greek name of Edom. 
This place was denounced by Isaiah. From this place a 
great multitude followed Christ. 

Ijon, or Ivon — Palestine. A fenced city, smitten by Ben- 
hadad king of Syria. 

Illyricum — Turkey. Here St. Paul preached the gospel. 

India — Hindoostan. So named t>om the river Indus. 

Ish-tob — Syria. Here the Syrians came to help the chil- 
dren of Ammon. 

Isles of the Gentiles. Islands in the Mediterranean. 

Jabbok, River — Palestine. Sihon king of the Amorites 
was defeated at this place. 

Jabbok, Fords of — Palestine. At this place Jacob wrest- 
led with the angel and called the place Peniel. 

Jabesh-Gilead — Palestine. Here Saul destroyed the Am- 
monites and afterward became the first king of Israel. Here 
also the bodies of Saul and Jonathan were deposited. 

Jabneh — Palestine. A strong city of the Philistines con- 
quered by Uzziah. 

Jacob's Well — Palestine. Here Christ conversed with 
the woman of Samaria. 

Jahaz — Palestine. A city of the Levites. Sihon king of 
the Amorites W as defeated here by Moses. 



384 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Japhet — Asia. So called from one of the sons of Noah 
who peopled the whole of Europe and part of Asia. 

Japho, or Joppa — Palestine. The port at which materials 
were received for the building of the temple. 

Jazer — Palestine. Taken by the Israelites under Moses. 

Jehoshaphat, Valley of — Palestine. This place is called 
the King's Dale. Here Absalom set up a pillar. It was a 
favourite cemetery of the Jews. 

Jehovah-jireh — Palestine. At this place Abraham was 
about to offer up Isaac as a burnt-offering, but the angel of 
the Lord prevented him. 

Jehovah-Nissi — Arabia. Here Moses erected an altar 
and here Aaron and Hur held up his hands while he prayed. 

Jehovah- Shalom — Palestine. Here the angel appeared 
to Gideon and brought fire out of the rock. 

Jericho, or City of Palm-trees — Palestine. Here the 
spies of Joshua were hid by the harlot Rahab. 

Jericho, Plains of — Palestine. On the arrival of the Isra- 
elites at this place the manna ceased and they ate of the fruit 
of the land of Canaan. 

Jericho, Waters of — Palestine. The impurity of these 
waters was removed by Elisha. 

Jeruel, Wilderness of — Palestine. Here the inhabitants of 
Jerusalem overcame the combined forces of Ammon, Moab, 
and Mount Seir. 

Jerusalem, Salem, Jehus, or Ariel — Palestine. Supposed 
to have been founded by Melchizedek. It was afterward 
taken by the Jebusites who erected the fortress called Jebus, 
on Mount Zion. David expelled them, and built the city of 
David, and made it the seat of government. Here David 
died and was buried. 

Jezreel — Palestine. Near this place was Naboth's vine- 
yard. 

Jezreel, Valley or Plain of — Palestine. Here the Spirit of 
the Lord descended upon Gideon, and he received a sign by 
which the fleece was wet or dry at his bidding. 



BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 385 

Jogbehah — Syria. Here the army of Zebah and Zalmun- 
na was overthrown by Gideon. 

Joppa — Palestine. Here Jonah took ship for Tarshish. 
Here Peter restored Tabitha to life. 

Jordan, Plains of — Palestine. This was chosen by Lot 
on his separation from Abraham. 

Jordan, River. The principal river of Palestine — rises in 
Mount Lebanon and empties into the Dead Sea. Our Lord 
was baptized in its waters. 

Judah, on Jordan — The bridge supposed to be Jacob's is 
near this place. 

Judah, Mountain of — Palestine. Hebron, a city of refuge, 
stood on this mountain. 

Judea — One of the grand divisions of Palestine in the 
time of our Saviour, and of which Herod was tetrarch. 

Judea, Wilderness of — Palestine. It was to this place 
Jesus was led by the Spirit ; here he fasted forty days, and 
was tempted by the devil. 

Kadesh — Arabia. Here Miriam, the sister of Moses, died 
and was buried. 

Kadesh-Barnea — Arabia. Here the Israelites encamped. 

Kadesh-Meribah — Arabia. Here the rock gave water, 
and Moses offended the Lord. 

Keilah — Palestine. Here David smote the Philistines, 
for robbing the threshing-floors of Keilah. 

Kenaih — Palestine. Taken from the Amorites by Nobah, 
who afterwards called it by his own name. 

Kidron, or Cedron, Brook of — Palestine. Shimei was 
forbidden by Solomon to pass over this place, on pain of death. 

Kidron, Fields of — Palestine. Here Hilkiah burned the 
images and vessels of idolatry, by order of Josiah. 

Kir-Eareseth — Syria. Here the Moabites were deceived 
by the miraculous appearance of water. The king of Moab 
offered his eldest son as a burnt-offering. 

Kirjathaim — Palestine. The Emims, in this place, were 
smitten by Chedorlaomer. 

11 



386 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

LTirjath-arba — Palestine. Here Sarah, the wife of Abra- 
ham, died. 

Kirjath-kuzoth — Syria. Here Balak brought Balaam, 
to curse the people of God. 

Kirjath-jearim — Palestine. The ark of the Lord was 
brought from Abinadab's house, and Uzzah was struck dead 
for touching it. 

Kishon, Brook — Palestine. Here the prophets of Baal 
were slain, by the order of Elijah. 

Lachish — Palestine. Taken by Joshua, who smote Horam, 
king of Gezer, who came to defend it. 

Laish — Palestine. Here the children of Dan robbed Mi- 
cah of his idols, and took his priest with them. 

Lasea — Mediterranean. St. Paul sailed under this place, 
in his voyage to Rome. 

Laodicea — Turkey. Here St. Paul preached, and wrote 
his First Epistle to Timothy. 

Lebanon, Mountains of — Syria. Celebrated for its cedars. 

Lebanon, Valley of — Palestine. Joshua destroyed all the 
cities and inhabitants from Mount Halah unto this place. 

Lebonah — Palestine. Near this place the Benjamites car- 
ried off the daughters of Shiloh. 

Leshem — Palestine. Taken by the children of Dan, who 
called it Dan-Laish. 

Lycaonia — Turkey. A province of the Roman Empire, 
in Asia, in the time of the apostles. 

Lydda — Palestine. Here Peter cured Eneas of the palsy, 
after he had kept his bed eight years. 

Lydia — Turkey. A province of the Roman Empire. 

Lystra — Turkey. Here Paul healed a cripple. 

Maacha — Palestine. Here David defeated the Ammon- 
ites. 

Macedonia — Turkey. A province of Greece, visited by 
the Apostle Paul. 

Machpelah, Cave of — Palestine. The burial-place of Abra- 
ham and his wife Sarah. 



BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 387 

Madon — Palestine. The king of this place, with several 
others, was destroyed by Joshua, at the waters of Me- 
rom. 

Magdala — Palestine. Christ took shipping and sailed to 
this place, after feeding five thousand miraculously. 

Mahanaim — Palestine. So named by Jacob, after he 
met the angels. 

Mahaneh-Dan — Palestine. The birth-place of Samson. 

Mamre, Plain of — Palestine. Here Abraham entertained 
three angels, who revealed the destruction of Sodom. Here, 
also, he received the promise of a son. 

Manasseh, on this side Jordan. 

Marah — Arabia. Here Moses sweetened the waters, by 
throwing into them the branch of a tree. 

Maralah — Palestine. Here Asa smote the Ethiopian, 
who came out against him with a great army. Here, also, 
the prophet Micah was born. 

Mars' 1 Hill — Turkey. Here was the court of the Areo- 
pagites, and here Paul preached to the Athenians. 

Massah, Bock of — Arabia. So called by Moses, after he 
had smitten the rock, from whence water was obtained. 

Mattanah — Palestine. Here the princes of the Israelites 
dug a well, by the direction of Moses, with staves. 

Meah, Tower of — Palestine. Rebuilt by Eliashab, the 
high-priest. 

Media — Persia. One of the countries of the Bible. 

Megiddo — Palestine. One of the purveyorships of Solo- 
mon. 

Melita — Malta. An island in the Mediterranean, where 
St. Paul was shipwrecked. 

Memphis — Egypt. The residence of the kings of Egypt. 

Merom, Waters of — Palestine. Here divers kings were 
overcome by Joshua. 

Meroz — Palestine. The inhabitants cursed. 

Michmash — Palestine. Here Samuel announced to Saul 
that his kingdom should not be continued to him. 



388 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Midian — Arabia. Moses fled to this place and married 
an Egyptian woman, named Zipporah. 

Miletus — Turkey. Visited by Paul, on bis way to Jeru- 
salem. 

MillOj House of Built by Solomon, in the city of Jeru- 
salem. Here tbe men of Shecbem made Abimelech king. 

Mitylene — Asia. Visited by Paul, on bis way to Jerusalem. 

Mizpeh — Palestine. Here Jephtbab made bis rasb vow. 

Mizpeh, of Moab — Palestine. David came to this place 
with the four hundred men who joined themselves to him 
at the cave of Adullam. 

Mizpeh, or Stone of — Palestine. Set up by Samuel. 

Mizraim — Egypt, or land of Ham. 

Moab — Palestine. Taken by Sihon, king of the Amorites. 

Moab, Plains of — Palestine. From thence Balak first 
sent for Balaam. 

Moreh, Vale of Abram passed through this place, on 
his way to Bethel. 

Moriah, Land of — Palestine. The country to which Abra- 
ham was commanded to take his son, and offer him on a 
mountain, which was to be shown him. 

Moriah, Mount Palestine. Here was the threshing- 
floor of Oman. Here the Lord accepted the sacrifice of 
David, and stayed the hand of the destroying angel. Here 
Solomon erected the temple. 

Myra — Turkey. Visited by St. Paul. 

Nahor, City of — Algezira. To this place Abraham sent 
his servant, to get a wife for his son Isaac. 

JVain — Palestine. Near the gate of this city Christ raised 
the widow's son to life. 

Nazareth — Palestine. This was the dwelling-place of our 
Saviour until he was thirty years of age. Here the Jews 
threatened to cast him from the brow of the hill. 

Neapolis — Turkey. Visited by St. Paul. 

JVebo, Mount — Palestine. From this mount Moses had 
a view of the promised land. Here he died. 



BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 389 

Nicopolis — Turkey. From this place St. Paul wrote his 
Epistle to Titus. 

Nimrod, Kingdom of — Turkey, The first kingdom on 
record ; established by a son of Gush. 

Nineveh — Turkey. A city built by Asshur. The inhabi- 
tants, repenting at the preaching of Jonah, were saved. 

No — A celebrated city of Egypt. 

Nob — Palestine. This city, and its priests, were destroyed 
by Saul. 

Nod, Land of — Persia. Cain fled to this place, after the 
murder of his brother. 

Og, Kingdom of — Palestine. Subdued by Joshua. 

Olives, Mount of or Mount Olivet — Palestine. From this 
place our Lord made his triumphant entry into Jerusalem. 

Ophir — India. From this place Solomon obtained his 
gold. 

Ophrah — Palestine* Here an angel appeared to Gi- 
deon. 

Oreb, Mock of — Palestine. The rock on which two princes 
of the Midianites were slain, by order of Gideon. 

Padan-Aram — Turkey. The country of Nahor, Abram, 
Isaac, and Jacob. 

Palestine — Turkey. The name of the country formerly 
occupied by the Philistines ; now the Holy Land. 

Pamphylia — -Turkey. Here Paul and Barnabas parted. 

Paphos — Syria. Here Elymas, the sorcerer, was struck 
blind, at the word of Paul. 

Paran, Wilderness of — Arabia. The dwelling-place of 
Ishmael. 

Parvaim — Persia. From this place gold was carried for 
the ornaments of the temple. 

Patara — Turkey. St. Paul touched here, on his way 
to Phoenicia. 

Patmos, Isle of — Archipelago. Here the Apostle John 
was banished, and here he had his revelation, which closed 
the canon of Scripture. 



390 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Peor, Mount — Palestine. On this mount Balaam pro- 
nounced a blessing upon Israel. 

Perea — Palestine. A province of the Roman Empire, in 
the time of Christ. 

Perez - Uzzah — Palestine. So named from the judgment 
inflicted on Uzzah. 

Perga — Turkey. Visited by St. Paul. 

Pergamos — Turkey. One of the seven Churches of Asia. 

Pethor — Turkey. The dwelling-place of Balaam. 

Pharpar, River — A river in Syria. 

Phoenicia — Palestine. Here Paul and Barnabas preached. 

Phenice — Levant. A port in the island of Crete, where 
St. Paul encountered the Euroclydon, and was shipwrecked. 

Philadelphia — Turkey. One of the seven Churches of 
Asia. 

Philippi — Turkey. Visited by St. Paul, and from whence 
he wrote his epistles to the Corinthians. 

Phrygia — Turkey. Visited by St. Paul. 

Pirathon — Palestine. Here Abdon, one of the judges of 
Israel, died and was buried. 

Pisgah, Mount The highest peak of Mount Nebo, where 
Moses had a view of the promised land. 

Pisidia — Turkey. Visited by. St. Paul. 

Pison, River — Persia. The first river of Paradise. 

Pithom — Egypt. A city built by the Israelites, under 
their task-masters. 

Plain, Sea of the — Palestine. The Dead Sea. 

Pon tus — Turkey. 

Potter's Field — Palestine. The burial-place of strangers 
in Jerusalem. 

Ptolemais — Palestine. The Canaanites were never ex- 
pelled from this place. Here Paul sojourned, at the house 
of Philip. 

Puteoli — Italy. St. Paul stopped here seven days, on his 
voyage to Rome. 

Rabbah — Palestine. Besieged by Joab. 



BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 391 

RacheVs Tomb — Palestine. A pillar was erected here 
over Rachel's grave by Jacob. 

Rdhab — Egypt. 

Ramah or Arimathea. 

Ramah — Palestine. Between this place and Bethel the 
prophetess Deborah dwelt under a palm-tree. 

Ramath-Lehi — Palestine. Here Samson slew one thou- 
sand Philistines. 

Rameses — Egypt. A city built by the Israelites, in 
bondage. 

Ramoth-Gilead — Palestine. A city of refuge. At the 
instigation of false prophets, Jehoshaphat and Ahab went 
up against this place, and the latter was slain. 

Red Sea — Arabia. The children of Israel crossed this on 
dry ground. The Egyptians following them were drowned. 

Rehob — Palestine. The spies sent by Joshua searched 
the land from the Wilderness of Zin to this place. 

Rehob, Kingdom of — Syria. The inhabitants of this 
place were smitten by the Israelites under Joab. 

Rehoboth — A city built by Asshur in Turkey. 

Rehoboth, Well of — Palestine. A well dug by the herd- 
men of Isaac after their contention with the herdmen of Gerar. 

Rephidim — Arabia. At this place the Israelites defeated 
the Amalekites. 

Rhegium — Italy. Paul touched here on his way to Rome. 

Rimmon, Rock of — Palestine. Here six hundred Benjam- 
ites hid themselves in caves for four months from the fury of 
the Israelites. 

Rogelim — Syria. Barzillai came down from this place 
and went over the Jordan with David. 

Rome — Italy. Here Paul dwelt two years, and here he 
wrote Epistles to the Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Co- 
lossi ans, Philemon, and the Second Epistle to Timothy. 

Salamis — Syria. Here Paul preached in the synagogues. 

Salcah — Palestine. A country of giants conquered by 
the Israelites under Moses. 



392 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Salem — Palestine. Here Jacob purchased a portion of 
land, pitched his tents and built an altar. Near this place 
John baptized. 

Salmone — Candia. Passed by Paul, on his way to 
Eome. 

Salt, Valley of — Syria. Here Amaziah slew ten thousand 
Edomites. 

Samaria — Palestine. Built by Omri. Ahab was buried 
here. 

Samaria, Hill of Purchased by Omri, v who built a city 
thereon. 

Samaria, Pool of — Palestine. Here Naboth was stoned 
by a stratagem of Jezebel wife of Ahab, and here the dogs 
licked her blood. 

Samos — Archipelago. Touched at by Paul. 

Samothracia — Archipelago. Visited by Paul. 

Sardis — Turkey. One of the seven Churches of Asia. 

Sechu, Well of — Palestine. Saul sent to this place for 
Samuel and David. (1 Sam. xix, 22.) 

Seir, Land of — Syria. To this place Jacob sent messen- 
gers to propitiate his brother Esau. 

Seir, Mount — Palestine. Given to Esau for a possession. 

Seirath — Palestine. Ehud fled here after killing Eglon. 

Selah — Arabia. Here Amaziah slew those servants who 
had slain Joash, his father. 

Seleucia — Syria. Paul and Barnabas came to this place 
immediately after they were sent to preach the gospel to the 
Gentiles. 

Seneh, Rock of — Palestine. Seneh and Bozez are the two 
rocks forming the passes of Michmash where Jonathan mi- 
raculously defeated the Philistines. 

Sheba — Arabia. The queen of this country having heard 
of Solomon's wisdom, came to prove him with hard questions. 

Shebarim — Palestine. The Israelites were driven to this 
place by the men of Ai. 

Shechem — Palestine. Here Joshua made a covenant with 



BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 393 

the children of Israel and set up a great stone as a witness 
unto them. This was the last public act of his life. 

Shem — Persia. Peopled by the descendants of Shem. 

Shiloh — Palestine. The tabernacle was set up at this 
place. 

Shinar, Land of — Turkey. Part of the kingdom of Nim- 
rod. 

Shittim, Valley of — Palestine. A place of captivity. 

Shunem — Palestine. At this place Elisha and his ser- 
vant were entertained by a woman who had a chamber built 
for him. The prophet promised her a son, whom he after- 
ward restored to life. 

Shushan — Persia. The winter residence of the Persian 
monarchs, and the place where Daniel prophesied. 

Sidon — Palestine. Founded by the eldest son of Canaan. 

Sihon, Kingdom of — Palestine. Conquered by the Isra- 
elites. 

Sihor, or Nile. The great river of Egypt. 

Siloam, Pool of — Palestine. A blind man washed in this 
pool and was restored to sight. 

Siloam, Tower of — Palestine. Eighteen persons were 
killed by the falling of this tower. 

Sin, Wilderness of — Arabia. At this place the Israelites 
murmured for bread, and manna and quails were given them. 

Sinai, Mount — Arabia. The Lord descended in a cloud 
upon this mount and gave Moses the law of the Ten Com- 
mandments. 

Sirah, Well of — Palestine. Joab sent messengers to this 
place after Abner. 

Smyrna — Turkey. One of the seven Churches of Asia. 

Sodom — Palestine. Here Lot dwelt and entertained the 
angels, who warned him to flee from it. 

Sorelc, Valley of — Palestine. At this place Samson abode 
with Delilah, and here she betrayed him. 

Succoth — Egypt. Jacob built him a house and lived here 

for a time. 

17* 



394 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Syracuse — Naples. At this city Paul tarried three days 
on his way to Rome. 

Tabbath — Palestine. Here the Midianites were defeated 
by Gideon. 

Taberah — Arabia. The fire of the Lord burned here 
upon the Israelites for their complaining against him. 

Tabor, Plain of — Here Saul's heart was changed and he 
was numbered among the prophets. 

Tabor, Mount — Palestine. Here Barak and Deborah as- 
sembled ten thousand men against Sisera and defeated his host. 

Tadmor in the Wilderness — Syria. A city built by Sol- 
omon. 

Tarshish — Spain. The most celebrated port in the time 
of Solomon from whence ships traded to all the then known 
parts of the world. 

Tarsus — Turkey. The birth-place of St. Paul. 

Taverns, The Three — Italy. To this place the brethren 
came to meet Paul when he was on his way to Rome. 

TeJcoa, Wilderness of — Palestine. Here Jehoshaphat as- 
sembled his army previous to battle. 

Telabib — Turkey. Here the spirit of prophecy was given 
to Ezekiel. 

Telaim — Palestine. Saul was sent by Samuel to this place, 
to utterly destroy the Amalekites ; but sparing Agag their 
king and the best of the cattle, he was rejected of the Lord. 

Teman, Idumea, or Edom. 

Thebez — Palestine. From a tower of this city a woman 
dropped a stone upon the head of Abimelech, after which 
he was slain at his own request by his armour-bearer. 

Thessalonica — Turkey. Here St. Paul preached in the 
synagogue of the Jews. 

Thyatira — Turkey. One of the seven Churches of Asia. 

Tiberias, Sea of — Palestine. On the shores of this sea- 
Christ wrought many miracles. 

Timnath— Palestine. Here Samson chose his wife and 
killed a lion. 



BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 395 

Timnatk-Serah — Palestine. The inheritance of Joshua, 
and here he was buried. 

Tiphsah — Turkey. This city was despoiled by Menahem, 
and wanton cruelty was inflicted upon the women. 

Tirzah — Palestine. A royal city, and some time the seat 
of government. 

Tabor — Palestine. The residence of Jephthah. Here 
Christ was transfigured. 

Tophet — Palestine. Places of idol worship were erected 
here by the children of Judah. 

Troas — Turkey. Here the brethren waited for Paul, and 
here he celebrated the Lord's supper with them. 

Trogyllium — Turkey. Here Paul tarried on his way to 
Jerusalem. 

Ulai — Persia. Here Daniel saw the vision of a ram with 
two horns. 

Ur of the Chaldeans — Turkey. The primitive abode of 
Terah, Abram, Nahor, and Haran. 

Uz, Land of— Syria. The country of Job, a wealthy prince 
of Arabia Petraea. 

Valley-gate — Palestine. Uzziah built towers near this gate. 

Vineyards, Plain of — Palestine. Near this place the 
daughter of Jephthah came to meet her father. 

Water-gate — Palestine. Here the people gathered to- 
gether and requested Ezra to bring out the Book of the Law 
of Moses, which he read distinctly, gave the sense, and caused 
them to understand its meaning. 

Zair, or Seir — Syria. Here Joram smote the Edomites. 

Zalmon, Mount — Palestine. Here Abimelech cut wood, 
with which he burned the tower of Shechem and one thou- 
sand men and women. 

Zanoah — Syria. The inhabitants of this place repaired the 
valley-gate of Jerusalem together with the wall and dung-gates. 

Zarephath — Palestine. To this place Elijah was com- 
manded to go to a woman who would support him. Here 
he restored the meal and oil. 



396 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

Zaretan — Palestine. Near this place the Israelites crossed 
the Eed Sea. Hiram king of Tyre caused the immense brass 
pillars for Solomon's Temple to be cast between this place 
and Succoth. 

Zeboiim — Palestine. A city of the plain destroyed by fire 
from heaven. 

Zeboiim, Vale of — Palestine. At this place the Israelites 
were obliged to go down to the Philistines to sharpen their 
axes, coulters, and mattocks. 

Zelah — Palestine. Here was the sepulchre of Kish, in 
which the bones of Saul and Jonathan were finally deposited. 

Zelzah — Palestine. Rachel's sepulchre was near this place. 
Here also Saul was anointed by Samuel. 

Zephathah — Palestine. Here Asa king of Israel overcame 
the vast army of the Ethiopians under Zerah, which consisted 
of one million soldiers and three hundred chariots. 

Zereda — Arabia. The birth-place of Jeroboam. 

Ziklag — Palestine. A city given by Achish king of Gath 
to David. 

Zion — Palestine. Taken by David from the Jebusites. 

Ziph, Wilderness of — David fled from Saul to this place, 
and Jonathan comforted him. 

Zoar — Palestine. A city in the vale of Siddim, to which 
Lot retired by the permission of the Lord previous to the 
destruction of Sodom. 

Zobah — Syria. Saul made war against this country. 

Zoheleth, Stone of — Palestine. Here Adonijah conspired 
against David and usurped the kingdom. 

Zophim, Meld of — Palestine. One of the three places 
where Balak caused seven altars to be erected, and brought 
Balaam to curse Israel. 



INDEX. 



Abstract Words Page 66 

Acts of the Apostles 325 

Affections, Characteristics of Spiritual 97 

, Carnal . 98 

Agriculture 139 

, Instruments of 140 

Allegory 38 

Allegories 84 

Altar 224 

of Incense 226 

Amos 309 

Analogy of Faith 60 

— — of Languages 74 

, Grammatical 74 

, Scriptural 79 

Analysis, Biblical 110 

of Epistle to the Corinthians Ill 

of Epistle to the Ephesians 116 

, Rules of 115 

Animals 136 

Antithesis 65 

Archaeology, Biblical... ., 122 

, Domestic 124 

Ark of the Covenant , 226 

Arts, origin of 151 

Asses 136 

Autographs, Evangelists' and Apostles', not extant 32 

Bees 149 

Bible, a book of facts. 16 

, adaptation to every grade of intellect 13 



398 INDEX. 

Bible, classification of facts of the Page 17 

, English translation of the 24 

, inspiration, authenticity, and genuineness of the 13 

, its prophecies 17 

, its truth attested by the physical and moral world 16 

, its monuments and testimonial signs 17 

, introductions to the study of, history of 18 

, inexhaustible nature of the 14 

, not inconsistent with reason 16 

, number of books of, and where written 16 

, order in the study of the 14 

, original languages of the 23 

, spirit and letter of the 18 

, style of composition of the 17 

, translations of the 23 

, unerring guide in all matters of faith and practice 14 

Book of Chronicles 294 

Book of Kings 292 

Book of Samuel 290 

Brazen Laver 224 

Burials 171 

Camels 137 

Canaanites and neighbouring nations 265 

Catachresis 76 

Character of ancient wars 206 

Chronology, Biblical 342 

Cisterns 133 

Cities 132 

Clothing 156 

Colossians, Epistle to 332 

Commerce 155 

Concrete words 66 

Conquered nations 205 

Corinthians, Epistle to 328 

Criticism, Biblical objects of 36 

, first writer on Biblical 39 

, twofold... 39 

Daniel, Book of. 307 

Death 171 

Deuteronomy, Book of 286 



INDEX. 399 

Discrepancies, apparent, means of harmonizing Page 104 

between the writers of the Old and New Testaments 106 

, doctrinal 104 

, historical 104 

Diseases 168 

Doctrinal Books 327 

Dogs • 138 

Dwellings 124 

Dynasties of China and India 342 

Ecclesiastes, Book of. 302 

Egyptians 250 

Emphasis, occasional or constant 65 

, rules in regard to 86 

, what 64 

Encampments 202 

Ephesians, Epistle to 331 

Epistle to Romans 327 

Epistolary Books 337 

Esther, Book of. 297 

Essenes, doctrines of. 218 

Ethnography, Biblical 247 

Exegesis consists of two parts 56 

, definition of Biblical 55 

, importance of. 55 

Exodus, Book of. 283 

Ezekiel, Book of. 306 

Ezra, Book of. , 295 

Fallow Year 150 

Feasts 158 

Festivals 241 

Fifth age of the world 354 

First age of the world 349 

Firstborn 243 

Firstfruits 243 

First races of mankind 247 

Fish 150 

Flocks 134 

Food 158 

Fourth age of the world 351 

Fountains 133 

Francke, Professor, mode of studying the Greek language 33 



400 INDEX. 

Francke's mode of studying the Hebrew language Page 35 

Furniture, household ... 131 

Future 214 

Galatians, Epistle to 330 

Gardens 145 

Geography, BiblicaJ. . 363 

Geology 344 

Glossarium 71 

Golden Candlestick . 224 

Grain, different kinds of.., 140 

Greek, common dialect of. 31 

, dialects of. 31 

Fathers 79 

, language of New Testament 31 

, language of literature in Egypt, Greece, and Syria 32 

Habakkuk, Book of 312 

Haggai, Book of. 314 

Harvest 141 

Hebrews, Epistle to ... 335 

Hebrew, first medium of a written revelation, 28 

idiom 78 

, most ancient of Oriental languages.. 25 

, language of Tyre, Sidon, and Carthage 28 

~ — , vernacular to what countries 25 

Hebrews, social condition of 165 

Hellenists 219 

Hieroglyphics of Egypt 343 

History, Biblical 281 

Historical Books of the Old Testament.. 282 

Holy of Holies..... 226 

Honey ... 149 

Horses , 138 

Hosea, Book of 308 

Houses ... ...... 126 

Hunting 138 

Hypallage 76 

Hyperbole . 76 

Inspired writers, affections of 89 

Interpretation in general 55 

— , most important and difficult task of a theologian 55 



INDEX. . 401 

Interpretation, rules of..... Page 66 

— — , what it requires 56 

Book of 303 



James, General Epistle of.... 337 

Jeremiah, Book of. 305 

Jewish nation 254 

Jews, number of 29 

preserved the Bible in their captivity in Babylon 30 

Job, Book of 298 

Joel, Book of < 309 

John, Gospel of 322 

John, Epistle of. . 339 

Jonah, Book of 311 

Joshua, Book of. 287 

Judaism, propagation of 215 

Jude, Epistle of 340 

Judges, Book of 288 

Kings. 182 

Lamentations, Book of 306 

Language, Aramean or Syrian 25 

, Chaldee 25 

, Greek 31 

, Hebrew, most ancient 25 

, rules to be observed in the study of a 36 

, tropical 81 

Leviticus 284 

Luke, Gospel of. ... 320 

Malachi, Book of 315 

Mark, Gospel of 318 

Matthew, Gospel of 316 

Meaning of words 56 

M'Clintock, First and Second Book in Greek 38 

Micah, Book of 311 

Military affairs 195 

fortifications , 198 

standards 203 

sieges 205 

Mourning 171 



402 INDEX. 

Nahum, Book of. Page 312 

Neherniah, Book of. 296 

New moons 237 

New Testament, Hebrew characteristics of 31 

, usus loquendi of. 77 

Numbers, Book of. 285 

Oaths 244 

Obadiah, Book of. 310 

Origen, Biblia Enneapla of. 40 

, Biblia Hexapla of 39 

, Biblia Octapla of. 40 

Ox 136 

Palestine, climate of. 363 

Palmyrene, inscriptions on bricks of Babylon 28 

, Hebrew character descended from 28 

Parallelism, verbal and real 68 

Passover 237 

Pastures 133 

Pentecost 238 

Peter, Epistles of 237 

Pharisees, doctrines of. 216 

Philemon, Epistle to 335 

Philippians, Epistle to..... 331 

Philology, Biblical, what 23 

, importance of 23 

Poetical Books 298 

Political Archaeology 176 

Prayers 245 

Proselytes 219 

Prophetical Books 303 

Proverbs, Book of , 301 

Psalms, Book of. 299 

Punishments 188 

Rabbinical style of writing 28 

Readings, certainly genuine 52 

, Concurrence of ancient versions sufficient to establish 

right 51 

, conjectural 52 

, controverted texts 54 



INDEX. 403 

Readings, evidence by which they may be examined Page 41 

, kinds of false 47 

, principles by which to determine false 44 

, probably genuine 51 

, rules of judging concerning various 49 

, sources of false 42 

, various, nature of. 41 

, various 49 

, what constitutes various 42 

, what improperly called various 41 

Revelation of St. John the Divine 340 

Romans, Epistle to : 327 

Ruth, Book of. 289 

Sabbath 235 

Sabbatic year 236 

Sacred Archaeology 209 

Sacred oil 244 

Sacred Places 221 

Sacrifices 241 

Sadducees, doctrines of the , 217 

Samaritans 220 

Scholia 71 

Sciences 154 

Scriptures, additions and interpolations in transcribing 47 

, most ancient copies written on papyrus 32 

preserved by transcriptions 40 

Second age of the world 349 

Seventh age of the world 360 

Shepherds 132 

Sixth age of the world 357 

Society, state of domestic 160 

Song of Solomon 302 

State, officers of. , 182 

Sports, gymnastic 200 

Spoils 207 

Synagogues 233 

Tabernacle 222 

Tabernacles 124 

, feast of. 239 

Table of shew-bread 225 



404 INDEX. 

Tefft, Professor, plan for studying the Greek language... Page 36 

Temple of Solomon 227 

Tents 125 

Testament, New, corrected from the Greek version of the Old.. 45 

, sometimes in conformity with Vulgate 45 

Text-books, for study of the Hebrew and Greek 38 

Thessalonians, Epistle to 332 

Third age of the world 350 

Threshing-floor 142 

Timothy, Epistle to 333. 

Tithes . 244 

Titus, Epistle to 334 

Towns 132 

Trees 145 

Trials 188 

Usus loquendi 67 

Villages 132 

Vines 143 

Vineyards ! 143 

Vows .'. 245 

War 203 

, character of ancient 206 

Words, causes of doubtful meaning of. 57 

, grammatico-historical 59 

, how to find meaning of. 57 

, literal sense of. 56 

" , meaning of. 56 

, proper and tropical ... 62 

, typical sense of. 58 

Writers, inspired, affections of 89 

Year of Jubilee 236 

Zechariah, Book of. 314 

Zephaniah, Book of. 313 

Zerubbabel, Temple of. 230 



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